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THE
DOMINION
OF
CANADA;
CONTAINING
A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PRELIMINARIES AND ORGANI-
ZATION OF CONFEDERATION;
ALSO,
THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE AND TRADE,
MODES OF TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, MINiNG, AND
EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS, ETC, ETC.
rOR TlIK PAST EIGHTY YEARS UNDER THE PROVINCIAL NAMES.
WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION,
FROM THE BB8T AND LATEST AUTHORITIES.
BY
H. Y. HIND, M. A., F. R. G. S.
T. C. KEEFER, CIVIL ENGINEER.
J. G. HODGINS, LL. B., F. R. G. S.
CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER.
M. H. PERLEY, ESQ.
REV. WM. MURRAY.
FULIiY ILLUSTRATED WITH STEEL AND ELECTROTYPE PLATE ENORAVUJGS,
BHOWINO THE PROGRESS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES TREATED OP.
(FURNISHED TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY.)
TORONTO:
PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS.
1869.
• i
^
OOIsTTEISTTS.
SIX CHAPTERS, INCLUDraG EIGHTY SECTIONS.
Part I. Introductory, (2 sections.)
Part IL Period of English and French Discovery and Settlement,
(10 sections.)
Part III. Political and Military History— French Period, (26 sections.)
Part IV. Political History of Canada— British Period, (18 sections.)
Part V. The Maritime Provinces, (8 sections.)
Part VI. Confederation of the Provinces — with Statistical Tables,
(16 sections.)
m
k
K
I.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
OP THE NEW
CONFEDERATED DOMINION OF CANADA.
PART I.
INTRODUCTORY.
The prosperous provinces of British North America,
which now constitute the " Dominion of Canada, " were,
with the islands of Prince Edward and Newfoundland and
the outlying territory of the Hudson Bay company, (and
even portions of the United States,) — once known as
Nouvelle France. This vast area was two centuries ago held
by one people, and ruled by one viceroy — with his subor-
dinates as governors of districts. It will be curious and
interesting briefly to trace the successive steps which led not
only to the rapid expansion of French power and influence
on the continent, but also to note the causes which led to
the no less certain decay and extinction of that power as a
political entity in America. Equally instructive will it be
to take a glance at the successive steps which led to the
establishment of that other rival power in the very seat of
French dominion on this continent, and caused to be trans-
ferred to Great Britain these fine provinces, which after-
wards under her beneficial rule grew and prospered as sin-
gle communities, and at length confederated together as one
Dominion — a Dominion with a population and territory-
equal to that which formed the United States at the close
of its successful revolution of 1776.
VI
INTRODUCTORY.
2. Groivth of British North America. — Long after the dis-
CO very of America, Great Britain bad no permanent foot-
hold in any part of the continent. For many years she
maintained but a nominal claim, for fishing purposes, upon
the outlying island of Newfoundland — her sovereignty over
which was chiefly based upon Cabot's discovery in 1497,
and Sir Humphrey Gilbert's act of possession in 1583.
Gradually, however, she advanced her power and increased
her influence, until she absorbed nearly the whole of the
North American continent. But very soon after the ab-
sorption of this vast territory, there arose that restless spirit
among her own children, which at length issued in rebel-
lion against her authority, and in the end bereft her of
more than half of her possessions. Since that event there
has again grown up in what was once New France, a pros-
perous cluster of colonies, which stretch across the continent
from the island of Newfoundland to that of Vancouver.
PAET 11.
PERIOD OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERY AND SETTLE-
MENT.
1. Cahot^s Discovery of Newfoundland. — Soon after the news
of the discovery by Columbus had reached England, John
Cabot, a Venetian merchant, resident at Bristol, obtained a
commission from Henry VII., in 1496, to make a voyage
to the New World. In June 1497, he left Bristol with his
son Sebastian. On the 24th of that month, he reached a
point on the Trinity Bay coast, Newfoundland, which he '
named Prima Vista. On St. John's day he came to an island
which he named St. Jean, (afterwards Prince Edward.) By
virtue of these discoveries, the English first laid claim to
sovereignt}'- over these islands.
2. CorlereaVs Voyages. — In 1500 Gaspard Cortereal, a
«p
11
ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT.
VU
Portuguese, made a voyage to Labrador, Newfoundland,
and New England. lie made a second voyage in 1501,
and, having reached Hudson Strait, was never heard of
afterwards.
3. Vemzzani^s Voyage. — In 1524, John Yerazzani made
a voyage to America, under the patronage of Francis I.
In 1525 he made a second voyage, and explored more than
2,000 miles of coast. In consequence of his discoveries the
French claimed jurisdiction of all places visited by him.
4. Cartier's Discovery of Canada. — In 1534 Philip Cabot,
admiral of France, urged King Francis I. to establish a
colony in the new world. He recommended Jacques Car-
tier, a noted navigator of St, Malo, to command an expe-
dition of discovery to the New World. In April 1534
Cartier left St. Malo, and twenty days after reached a cape
on the Newfoundland coast which he named Bona Vista.
On the 9th of July he entered a bay (of New Brunswick)
in which he experienced such intense heat that he called it
the "Bale des Chaleurs." Passing northwards out of this
bay he rounded the peninsula, and on the 24th of July
landed on the coast since known as "Gasp6,'' — an Indian
name for Land's end. There he erected a cross, on which
he placed a shield bearing the fleur-de-lis, as emblematical
of the new sovereignty of France in America. He then
returned to France. In July, 1535, after a tempestuous voy-
age, he again reached Newfoundland. On the lOtli of July
he anchored in a bay to which he gave the name of St.
Lawrence, — having entered it on the festival of that saint.
The name thus given to the little bay has since been ap-
plied to the vast gulf and noble river which Cartier was
the first European to discover and afterwards explore.
5. Name of Canada. — When Cartier reached Stadacona
(Quebec) the Algonquin Indians intimated to him that
Kanata, — a collection of wigwams at the native Huron vil-
lage of Hochelaga (Montreal) — was farther up the river.
i
tit
II
vm
ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT.
He probably understood them to apply tliat word to the
whole country lying beyond him. In this way, it is sup-
posed the name Kanata, or Canada, was given to the entire
country which Cartier was then engaged in exploring,
6. Other Futile Expeditions — Feudal System introduced. —
During the next fifty years little more was accomplished.
But in 1598 the Marquis de la Eoehe was constituted lieu-
tenant-general of the king, and was invested by him with
power to "grant leases of land in New France, in form of
fiefs, to men of gentle blood." Thus was the feudal system
introduced into Canada. It was modified by Eichelieu
into a seigniorial tenure, and was not finally abolished
until 1854.
7. Commercial Efforts. — Not only did the French fisher-
men continue to frequent the coast --f Newfoundland, hut,
under the patronage of Henry IV., Dupont Grav6, a mer-
chant of St Malo, and Chauvin, a master-marine of Eouen,
made several voyages up the St Lawrence to Tadoussac,
and brought home cargoes of the rich furs which had been
collected from the north at that place. De Chattes, the
governor of Dieppe, formed a company of Eouen and other
merchants, to' prosecute the work more vigorously.
8. Champlain^s Discoveries. — The first expedition to Can-
ada projected by this Company was placed under the com-
mand of Samuel de Champlain. In company with Dupont
Grav6, he, in 1603-7, explored the St Lawrence from
Tadoussac to Three Eivers. On the 3d of July, 1608, he
founded the city of Quebec. In 1609 he ascended the
river Eichelieu, and discovered the beautiful lake since
called Champlain. In 1616 he ascended the Ottawa to
Lake Ni pissing, descended French Eiver to Georgian Bay,
and from Lake Simcoe he passed by a long portage to the
head- waters of the river Trent, and thence to Lake Ontario.
9. Reverses — Fui ih'r Explorations. — The Prince de Cond6
having been appointed viceroy, a new and enlarged com-
»«;*
ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT.
IX
pany was incorporated under his auspices, and an effort was
made to introduce Christianity among the Indians. For
this purpose Champlain brought the first missionaries to
Canada. These were four Eecollet fathers, who accom-
panied him in 1615.
10. Montreal Founded. — Huron War. — M. De Montmagny
followed Champlain. During his administration in 1642,
Montreal was founded with religious ceremonies under the
name of V'lla Maria, (Town of Mary,) and soon after, the
long threatened war of extefrmination against the Huron
Indians was commenced by the Iroquois, it was to this
governor that the Indians lirst applied the term Onontio, the
great r)iountain — a literal translation of M. de Montmagny's
name. The term was afterwards applied to each of the
French governors of Canada. On-ti-go-a was the Indian
name of the king of France.
PART III.
POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY— FRENCH PERIOD.
1. Proposed Union of the English, French, and Dutch Colo-
nies.— The four New England colonies had, in 1643,
formed a union or alliance. It was then proposed that this
union should include all the European colonies in Amer-
ica— English, French, and Dutch — whose existence should
not be imperilled by the politics or wars of Europe. Each
colony was to retain its own laws, customs, religion, and
language.
2. Projected Alliance wiHi New England. — With a view to
carry out this confederation. Governor Winthrop of Massa-
chusetts wrote to the governors of New Netherlands and
New France, or Canada, in 1647. The Dutch governor
responded favorably at once, but the French governor de-
layed doing anything until 1650, when he dispatched P6ro
ill
X POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY.
Druilletes to Boston, to propose as an additional article of
union, the stipulation that New England should join Can-
ada against the Iroquois — the French having suiFered so
severely from the Iroquois in their prosecution of the pel-
try-traffic. This hostile stipulation on the part of the
French, although skillfully presented as a righteous league
in defense of Christianity against scoffing pagans, broke off
the negotiations. When this proposed arrangement be-
came known to the Iroquois, it exasperated them still more,
and they redoubled their efforts to destroy the French col-
onists, so that for several years the French were virtually
kept within their inclosures. Trade entirely languished,
and the beavers were allowed to build their dams in peace,
none of the colonists being able or willing to molest them.
3. Peace and Progress. — At length, however, a treaty was
entered into with the five Troquois tribes in 1654, and for
a time war ceased its alarms. Trade revived, and the
peltry-traffic was vigorously prosecuted by the French with
such of the Iroquois as were near Canada. The others, how-
ever, preferred to trade with the English. During the in-
tervals of war, explorations were made among the Sioux
Indians beyond Lake Superior, and also among the Esqui-
maux. The year 1656 was noted for an overland expedi-
tion which was sent from Canada to Hudson Bay by way
of Labrador, under Louis Jean Bourdon, attorney-general
of New France, to take possession of that territory on
behalf of the French King.
4. Poyal Qovernment Established. — In 1659, a royal edict
was issued regulating the civil government of the colony.
The resumption of Royal authority in Canada was made
the occasion of introducing various reforms. A "Sover-
eign Council," invested with administrative and judicial
functions, somewhat like the "Parlement do Paris," was
instituted at Quebec. Legal tribunals were established,
and municipal government in a modified form introduced.
L
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763.
XI
The right of taxation was, however, reserved to the king.
The administration of goverment devolved upon a viceroy
(who, as colonial minister, generally resided in France,) a
governor, and an intendant, or chief of justice.
5. Police and Public Works. — West India Company. —
"With these modifications the king, in 1664, transferred the
trading interests of Canada to the West India Company,
by whom an ordinance was passed introducing into the col-
ony "the law and customs of Paris," (la coutume de
Paris.) With a view to insure harmony in this matter
throughout Canada, all other French coutumes were declared
illegal in it.
6. Vigorous Administration and Reform. — The new rulers
sent out from France in 1665, were men of ability. M. de
Tracy was selected by the king as lieutenant-general, M.
de Courcelles as governor, and M. Talon as intendant. On
their arrival with new emigrants and farming materials,
the colony revived. Talon, by authority of the king, car-
ried into effect various useful reforms in the system of
government, — especially in regard to the finances, the pun-
ishment of peculators, and the reduction of the amount of
tithes payable to the clergy. He further sought to encour-
age both agriculture and manufactures. During his ad-
ministration the restrictions on trade in Canada, as imposed
by the West India Company, were greatly relaxed.
7. Attempted Diversion of the Fur Trade. — The English,
having, in 1663, superceded the Dutch in New Amsterdam,
(afterwards New York,) pushed their trade northward
through the agency of the Iroquois Indians. These allies,
anxious to profit by the traffic, sought, in 1670, to obtain
furs and skins for the English from the various tribes up
the Ottawa, which was then the chief hunting ground of
the French Indians.
8. Formation of the Hudson Bay Company. — In the mean-
time the English obtained a footing in the Hudson Bay tcr-
Xll
POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY.
ritories, under the guidance of des Groselli^res, a French
pilot, aided by another Franco-Canadian, named Eadisson.
An English company was formed to trade for furs, under
the patronage of Prince Kupert. Charles I., King of Eng-
land, having claimed the Hudson Bay territories, by virtue of
Hudson's discoveries in 1610, granted a charter in 1670 to
this compuii J, authorizing it to traffic for furs in that region.
9. Count de Frontenac. — In the year 1672 de Courcelles
retired, and Count de Frontenac, a man of great energy
and ability arrived. He remained ten years, and was re-
called in 1682. In 1672 he built Fort Frontenac (Kings-
ton.) It was rebuilt of stone by La Salle in 1678. Fron-
tenac was re-appointed governor in 1689, and carried on a
vigorous war against the English settlements in New York,
and against their Indian allies, the Iroquois. The English
retaliated, and the Iroquois made various successful inroads
into Canada. In 1690 Frontenac defeated Sir William
Phipps and the English fleet, before Quebec. He died
greatly regretted in 1698, aged 78 years. Though naturally
haughty, he was an able and enterprising man.
10. Spirit of Discovei'y and Adventure. — Nothing was so
remarkable, during the early settlement of Canada, as the
spirit of adventure and discovery which was then devel-
oped. Zeal for the conversion of the Indians seems to
have inspired the Jesuit clergy with an unconquerable de-
votion to the work of exploration and discovery. Nor
were the^ alone in this respect, for laymen exhibited the
same adventurous spirit in encountering peril and hard-
ship. From the first settlement of Quebec, in 1608, until
its fiill in 1759, this spirit of discovery and dominion was
actively fostered by each succeeding governor, until there
radiated from that city a series of French settlements which
stretched from the St. Lawrence to the far West, and from
the sources of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, and
even to the shores of South America.
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763.
XUl
11. Summary of Discoveries. — After Champlain, other ex-
plorers extended their researches westward. In 1640 the
southern shores of Lake Erie were visited by P^res Chaumonot
and Breboeuf. In 1647, P^re de Quesne went up the Sague-
nay and discovered Lake St. John. In 1651, 1661, and 1671,
expeditions were sent northwards towards the Hudson Bay,
with more or less success. In 1646, P^re Druilletes ascend-
ed the Chaudi^re, and descended the Kennebec to the At-
lantic. In 1659, the Sioux were visited by adventurous
traders, and in 1660 P^re Mesnard reached Lake Superior.
In 1665, P^re Alloiiez coasted the same lake, and formed
a mission at the Bay of Che-goi-megon. In 1668, Peres
Dablon and Marquette formed a settlement of Sault Ste.
Marie. In 1670 and 1672 Alloiiez penetrated, with Dab-
lon, to the Illinois region, where they first heard of the
mysterious Mississippi, — the " great father of waters."
12. La Salle's Expeditions to the Mississippi. — Fired with
the news of this notable discovery, Sieur de la Salle, a
French knight, then at Quebec, determined to complete the
discovery. He sought to reach China by the way of Can-
ada. His design was frustrated by an accident at a place
since called Lachine, or China. He explored the Missis-
sippi from its source to its month in 1678-80 ; spent two
years between Frontenac (Kingston) and Lake Erie, and
constructed the first vessel on Lake Erie (near Cayuga
Creek.) He sought to reach the Mississippi by sea, but,
having failed, he sought to reach it overland. In doing so
he was murdered by his jealous followers who, afterwards,
justly suffered great hardships. P^re Hennepin, a Kecollet
Franciscan friar emigrated to Canada in 1675. He accom-
panied La Salle in his exploration of the Mississippi in
1678, and visited the Falls of Niagara, — of which he wrote
an interesting account.
13. Failure to restrict the Peltry Traffic to the Region of the
St. Lawrence. — Great efforts were made by the French to
1M
' i .■ '
i!
ijt.
I 'h^l
XIV
POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY.
restrict the traffic in beaver-skins and peltry within their
own territories. They at one time interdicted trade with
the Anglo-Iroquois — then they made them presents; —
again they threatened them — made war upon them — invad-
ed and desolated their villages ; — they made treaties with
them, and urged and entreated the Dutch and English to
restrain them, and even sought to make the latter responsi-
ble for their acts ; — but all in vain. As the tide rolled
slowly in upon them, and the English, (who were always
heralded by the Iroquois,) advanced northwards and west-
wards to the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, the French
still gallantly holding possession of their old trading-forts,
also pressed forward before them and occupied new ground.
14. Armed Trading Posts. — With sagacious foresight, the
French, in addition to a regular fort at Quebec, erected,
from time to time, palisaded inclosures round their trading
posts at Tadoussac, at Sorel, and the Falls of Chambly (on
the Iroquois, or Richelieu River) at Three Rivers, Montreal,
and Cataraqui (Kingston.) Subsequently, and as a coun-
terpoise to the encroachments of the English, they erected
palisaded posts at Niagara, Toronto, Detroit, and at Sault
Ste. Marie and Mich-il-i-mack-i-nac. Nor were the Eng-
lish idle. Creeping gradually up the Hudson river, they
erected armed trading-posts at Albany, and at various points
along the Mohawk valley, until, at length, in 1727, they fear-
lessly threw up a fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, midway
between the French trading posts of Frontenac and Niagara.
15. Tlie Catise of the Incessant Disputes and Wars must be
looked for in the mutual determination of the French and
English colonists to secure an exclusive right to carry on a
traffic for furs with the Indian tribes. Territorial exten-
sion, no less than national resentment between the French
and English colonists, gave intensity of feeling to the con-
test, and contributed to its duration. In their efforts to
force the traffic into unnatural channels, the plans of the
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763.
XV
Frencli were not only counteracted by the energy of the
English traders, but they were even thwarted in them by
separate classes among themselves — each having different
interests to serve, but all united in their secret opposition
to the government.
16. Tlie Three Glasses of French Fur Traders were; 1, the
Indians; 2, the trading officials; and 3, the courcurs de
bois (" runners of the wood," or white trappers.) As to
the first class, (the Indians of these vast territories,) they
were ever proud of their unfettered forest life, and natu-
rally disdained to be bound by the artificial trammels of the
white man. The second class, (the officials of New France,)
were secretly in league with the courcurs de bois against
the king's revenue agents — their exaction and their exclu-
sive privileged. The third or intermediary class of traders,
or factors, (the courcurs de bois,) sought in every way to
evade the jurisdiction of the farmers of the revenue at Que-
bec. Their own reckless and daring mode of life among the
Indians in the- woods, far from the seat of official influence
and power, gave them peculiar facilities for doing so.
17. Various ameliorations. — During a peaceful interval,
M. do Vaudreuil, the governor, set himself to develop the
resources of the country, and to foster education among the
people. He subdivided the three governments of Quebec,
Three Eivers, and Montreal, into eighty-two parishes, and
took a census of the people.
18. Maritime Defense of New France. — To provide for the
maritime defense of Canada, (which, as yet, had no protec-
tion to the seaward,) France, in 1713, colonized the island
of Cape Breton, and, in 1720, strongly fortified Louisbourg
its capital, at great expense.
19. PepperreWs Expedition from New England. — In 1745
war again broke out. From Crown Point, on Lake Cham-
plain, the French and their Indian allies successfully at-
tacked the English settlements ; and from Louisbourg a host
$
XVI
POLITICAL AND MILITARY IIISTOIir.
of French privateers sallied forth to harrass the commerce
of Nova Scotia and New England. Governor Shirley, of
Massachusetts, aided by the other colonies, at once sent an
expedition under William Pepperrell for the reduction of
this stronghold. It was highly successful, and Pepperrell
was rewarded with a baronetcy. Nothing daunted, a fleet,
under the Duke d' Anville, was dispatched from France to
recapture Louisbourg. But having been dispersed by a
tempest, it never reached its destination.
20. Proposed Federal Union of the Colonies, 17 5B-4:. — With
a view to concerted action against the French, the lords of
trade suggested to the colonies the formation of a league
with the Indians, which in its structure should be an enlarge-
ment of the Iroquois confederacy. Shirley, the indefatigable
governor of Massachusetts, conceived the bolder project of
an alliance among the colonies themselves, for the purposes
of mutual defense. Neither schemes were, however,
adopted, but the germ of such a colonial union was subse-
quently developed at the time of the American revolution.
21. Capture of Quebec. — The incessant trading disputes
which had lasted for years between the English and the
French ultimately culminated, in 1759, in that decisive
contest between them on the Plains of Abraham. And
thus, in the memorable fall of Quebec, fell also, in Canada,
(although the after-struggle was protracted for a year,) that
imperial power which, for mo/e than one hundred and fifty
years, had ruled the colonial destinies of New France.
22. Fall of French Power. — Thus, after years of heroic
struggle — with scant means of defense against powerful
rival colonists and a relentless Indian enemy, — the first
promoters of European civilization and enterprise in Can-
ada were compelled to give place to a more aggressive race..
But they did so with honor. And little did those think
who were then the victors over so brave an enemy in Canada,
that, within twenty years from that event their own proud
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763.
XVll
^erful
first
Can-
0 race,
think
anacla,
proud
fla'^ would be ignominiously lowered at the seat of their
own power at New York, as well as at every other fort and
military post within the thirteen American colonies,
23. Tlie Treaty of Paris, 1763.— By this treaty France
ceded to England the whole of her possessions in North
America, with the exception of Louisiana and the small
fishing islands of St. Pierre and Micquelon (off the coast of
Newfoundland.)
24. The French and English Colonial Systems Contrasted. —
The return to France of the French military officers and
troops, as well as of many of the chief inhabitants, was en-
couraged by the English, who were anxious thus quietly
to rid themselves of a powerful antagonistic element in their
newly acquired possession. They well knew that the pro-
cess of assimilation between the two races so long arrayed
in hostility to each other, would be very slow indeed.
25. System of Government in the French Colony. — The
French colony, in its relations to the Imperial government,
was as a child of the State. Every thing in it was subject
to political influence or official surveillance, while religious
matters were subject to vigorous ecclesiastical control.
Two principal objects engrossed the attention of the French
colonists, — the extension of the peltry traffic, and the con-
version of the Indian tribes. As a means of carrying
out these two great projects, exploration and discovery
formed a chief feature of French colonial life.
26. System of Government in the English Colony. — In the
English colony, the government, on the contrary, partook
rather of the nature of a civil and social bond between the
governing and the governed. It interfered as little as pos-
sible in matters of trade. Hence exploration and discovery
within the colony formed but a subordinate part of the ob-
jects and pursuits of the English colonist. When, there-
fore, the rival colonists came into contact, it was rather in a
struggle for enlarged boundaries for trade, or for dominion
I
i ^ k
\ >
XVIU
POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY.
over rival Indian tribes, and for the monopoly of tlie fur
trade. That contest, although it was too often utterly self-
ish in its objects, nevertheless unconsciously developed in
both colonies, in a wonderful degree, a spirit of enterprise
and discovery, which has scarcely had a parallel in later
times, when steam and electricity have added, as it were,
wings to man's locomotive and physical power.
i
PAET lY.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA,— BRITISH PERIOD.
1. British Rule Inaugurated — In 1763 General Murray
was appointed the first governor of the new British Prov-
ince of Quebec, — the boundaries of which were contracted
by the separation from it of New Brunswick, Labrador, &;c.
The old district divisions of Quebec, Montreal, and Three
Eivers were, however, retained, and a subordinate governor
appointed over the two outlying districts of Montreal and
Three Rivers.
2. State of Canada at this Time. — The population of Can-
ada at this time was about 80,000, including nearly 8,000
Indians. The country, however, had been exhausted by des-
olating wars, and agriculture and other peaceful arts lan-
guished. The failure of the French Government to pay
its Canadian creditors the sums due to them, (chiefly through
the fraud, rapacity, and extravagance of the Intendant
Bigot,) involved many of these creditors in misery and ruin.
3. Ameliorations hi the System of Oovernment Discussed. —
In 1766 Governor Murray was recalled, and General (Sir
Guy) Carleton appointed Governor General. Sir Guy
Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) had taken a prom-
inent part in the siege and capture of Quebec, under Wolfe,
in 1759; and, during Governor ^Murray's absence in
1767 he administered the government. Being in England
BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863.
XIX
in 1770, he aided in the passage of the first Quebec Act.
In 177-1 he became Governor-General, and successfully re-
sisted the attack of the Americans upon Quebec in 1776.
In 1778 he returned to England and was knighted by the
king. In 1782 he succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as coui-
mander-in chief of the royal forces in America. In 1786 he
was created Lord Dorchester for his distinguished services;
and from that time (with the exception of two years) he re-
mained in Canada for the long period of thirty-six years.
Daring that time he acquired great distinction as a colonial
governor by his prudence, firnniess, and sagacity.
4. Tlie Quebec Act. — In 1774 the Quebec Act was passed
as a conciliatory measure by the Imperial Parliament. It
provided, among other things, for the "free exercise" of
the Roman Catholic religion — for the establishment of a
Legislative Council, and for the introduction of the crim-
inal law of England into the province ; but it declared
"that in regard to property and civil rights, resort should
be had to the laws of Canada as the rule for the decision
of the same." Thus, the enjoyment of their religion, and
protection under the civil laws of French Canada were con-
firmed to the inhabitants by Imperial statute, and a system
of local self-government was introduced. Tiic act gave
satisfaction to the French Canadians ; and, at a time when
the old English colonies were wavering in their attachment
to the British crown, it confirmed them in their allegiance
to the king.
5. Efforts of the Disaffected colonists to Detach the Canadians
from England. — In 1774, the assembly,from Massachusetts,
requested a meeting of representatives from all the colonies
to concert measures of resistance to England. Each of the
thirteen old colonies, except Georgia, sent delegates. Can-
ada declined to take any part in the revolt; and although
one of the three addresses issued by the insurgent Congress
was esp'^cially addressed to the Canadians, they declined
XX
POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
to repudiate their formal allegiance to the British Crown.
Strong efforts were also made by the Americans to detach
the Iroquois (under Brant) from the British standai'd, but
without effect.
6. Constitutional Changes — Clergy Rtserves. — In 1789, the
draft of a new constitution for Canada was prepared. It
proposed to divide the province of Quebec into Upper and
Lower Canada; to give to each section a Legislative Coun-
cil and House of Assembly, with a local government of its
own. This celebrated constitutional act was passed in 1791.
By it representative government, in a modified form, was
for the first time introduced into the two Canadas simulta-
neously, and gave very great satisfaction. In the same
year the famous Clergy Keserve Act was passed in Eng-
land. This act set apart one seventh of the unsurveyed
lands of the Province, "for the support of a Protestant
Clergy," and authorized the governor of either Province
to establish rectories and endow thorn. This act became
afterwards a fruitful sourcu of agitation and discontent in
Upper Canada.
7. Parliamentary Government Inaugurated. — In June,
1792, the first parliamentary elections were held in Lower
Canada, fifty members were returned. The Legislative
Council, appointed by the Crown, consisted of fifteen mem-
bers. On the 17th of December the new Legislature was
opened by General Alurcd Clarke, the Lieutenant-Governor.
Eight acts were passed by both houses. During the second
session five bills were passed. The revenue of Lower Can-
ada this year was only $25,000. During the third session,
of 1795, accounts of the revenue and expenditure, which had
now reached $42,000, were first laid before the Legislature.
Of the customs revenue. Upper Canada was only entitled
to one eighth.
8. Settlement of Upper Canada. — As Upper Canada was
chiefly settled by United Empire Loyalists (to whom the
■i
.4
BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863.
XXI
British Government bad liberally granted land and subsist-
ence for two years,) it wr^ deemed advisable to confer upon
these settlers a form of government,, similar to that which
they had formerly enjoyed. In 1788 Lord Dorchester di-
vided Upper Canada into four districts, viz. : Lunenburg,
Mecklenburg, Nassau, and Hesse. In 1792, the Legislature
changed these names into Eastern, Midland, Home and
Western. These districts were afterwards divided, and
their number increased ; but they were abolished in 1849.
9. The First Upper Canada Parliament was opened at
Newark (Niagara) on the 17th of September, 1792, by
Lieutenant-Governor Siracoe. The House of Assembly con-
sisted of only sixteen members, and the Legislative Coun-
cil of seven. Eight bills were passed — one of which pro-
vided for the introduction of the English Civil Law. Trial
by jury was also specially introduced, by statute, in that
year. The English Criminal Law was also (as it stood in
1792) made the law of the land in Upper Canada.
10. Shtvzry Abolished. — In 1793, Slavery was abolished in
Upper Canada; and in 1803, Chief Justice Osgoode decided
that it was incompatible with the laws of Lower Canada.
11. The Seat of Government in Upper Canada was, in
1796, removed from Newark (Niagara,) to York (Toronto)
by Governor Simcoe.
12. Progress of Affairs.— From 1796 to 1810 little of pub-
lic or historical interest occurred in Canada. The local dis-
cussions related chiefly to abuses in land-granting by the
government, the application of the forfeited Jesuit estates
to the founding of a Eoyal Institution for the promotion
of public education in Lower Canada, and the establish-
ment of Grammar Schools in Upper Canada. Efforts were
also made to improve the navigation of the lower St. Law-
rence, to regulate the currency, extend the postal commu-
nication, ameliorate the prison system, promote shipping
and commerce. Soon after, the war of 1812 took place.
xxu
POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA,
13. Conditions of the Provinces at the Close of the War. —
Although the war of 1812 lasted only three years, it left
Upper and Lower Canada very ranch exhausted. It, how-
ever, developed the patiiotisra and loyalty of the people in
the two provinces in a very high degree..
14. Political Discussions in Upper and Lower Canada. —
The distracting influences of the war having gradually
ceased, political discussions soon occupied public attention.
In Lower Canada, a protracted contest arose between the
Legislative asssembly and the Executive Government,
chiefly on the subject of the finances and political rights.
In Upper Canada an almost similar contest arose between
the same parties in the state ; while the abuses arising out
of an irresponsible system of government were warmly
discussed and denounced. Nevertheless, progress was
made in many important directions. Emigration was en-
couraged ; wild lands surveyed ; commercial intercourse
with other colonies facilitated ; banking privileges extend-
ed ; the system of public improvements (canals, roads, &c.)
inaugurated. Steamboats were employed to navigate the
inland waters ; })rimary and higher education cncournged,
and religious liberty asserted as the inherent right of all
religious persuasions.
15. Political Crisis. — Remedy. — The political discussions
culminated, at length, in 1837, into armed resistance. This
however was soon put down ; and Lord Durham was sent
out from England to inquire into the grievances complain-
ed of. His mission resulted in their removal, and in 1840
the two provinces were reunited under one government.
16. Political Progress.— hoviX Sydenham was sent out as
Governor General to inaugurate and carry the union into
eficct. Under his administration the foundation of many
of the most important civil institutions were laid, especially
those relating to the municipal system, popular education,
the customs, currency, &c.
BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863.
1
XXIU
17. Lord Elgin. — From this period until 1847, when the
distinguished Lord Elgin became Governor General, the
political and material progress of the Province was marked
and steady. In the discharge of the duties of his high
office Lord Elgin exhibited a comprehensiveness of mind
and a singleness of purpose which gave dignity to his ad-
ministration, and divested the settlement of the various
questions of much party bitterness and strife. Under his
auspices, responsible government was fully carried out, and
every reasonable cause of complaint removed. The con-
sequence was that contentment, peace and prosperity be-
came almost universal throughout Canada. During his
period of office the Grand Trunk and Great Western Kail-
ways were projected, a free banking law was passed, a uni-
form letter postage rate of five cents was adopted, and the
number of representatives in Parliament increased, lie
also procured the passage of the Kcciprocity Treaty with
the United States, (since abrogated.) Ho fostered the systems
of public instruction in Upper and Lower Canada, and
greatly promoted their popularity and success by the aid
of his graceful eloquence.
18. /S^;r Edmund Head succeeded Lord Elgin in 1854.
His administration was noted for the final settlement of the
Clergy llescrve question in Upper Canada, and of the Scig-
nioiiil Tenure question in Lower Canada; also for the
completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Eivi«^rc da
Loup, and of its splendid Victoria Bridge over the St.
Lawrence river at Montreal. In 1851, 1861, and 1863
Canada distinguished herself in the great International Ex-
hibitions held in London, Paris and Dublin. In 1856, the
Legislative Council was made elective; and the laws of the
province consolidated. In the same year a Canadian line
of ocean steamers was established ; a decimal system of
currency, with appropriate coins, was introduced; the
handsome Parliament and Toronto University buildings
'^•^^ammmrm^'mm
W.-
I
if
XXIV
POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
were commenced ; in 1860 the memorable visit of tlie Prince
of Wales to Britisli America took place; and in 1864 the
project of Confederation was discussed.
PART Y.
THE MARITIME PROVINCES.
1. Nova Scotia, formerly called Acadie, was settled by
the French under De Monts, in 1604 ; ceded to England in
1713 ; colonized in 1748-9 ; a constitution was granted in
1758 ; in 1784 it was modified. Cape Breton was taken
from France by England in 1758 ; ceded formally to her in
1763 ; annexed to Nova Scotia in the same year; separa-
ted from it in 1784, and re-annexed again in 1819.
2. Political and Commercial Progress. — In 1820 efforts
were first formally made to protect the English fisheries on
the Nova Scotia coast. In 1823 the Roman Catholics were
admitted to the full enjoyment of equal civil privileges
with other denominations. In 1824-28 the Shubenacadie
canal, designed to connect Halifax with Cobcquid iJay,
was commenced, and a line of stages between Uaiifax and
Annapolis established.
3. liesponsihle Government — In 1838 a deputation from
Nova Scotia was sent to confer with Loi'd Durham, tlie
Governor General at Quebec, on a proposed change in tlie
constitution. In 1848 a system of government, responsible
to the Legislature, as in Canada, *vas introduced. In 1851
further efforts were made to protect the fisheries ; and, in
1852, a Pi'ovincial force, auxiliary to the Imperial, was
placed under the direction of the Pritish Admiral for that
purpose. Afterwards a fishing and reciprocity treaty was
made with the United States, but it was abrogated by that
country in 1866.
4. Confederation in Nova Scotia. — In 1860 His Royal
Highness, the Prince of Wales, visited Nova Scotia. Id
'I
m
Prince '
m the
was
Eoyal
THE MARITIME PROVINCES.
XXV
addition to the other valuable minerals, gold was discovered
in 1861. In 186-1 Nova Scotia united with the other col-
onies in the consideration of a scheme for the confederation
of all the provinces of British North America under one
government. With that view a meeting of delegates from
each province was held at Charlottetown, Halifax, and
Quebec. Kesolutions approving of confederation were
passed by the Nova Scotia Legislature in 1866, and a feel-
ing in favor of it exists in Nova Scotia, although the scheme
is now strongly opposed by many of the people there,
headed by the Hon. Joseph Howe, her leading statesman.
5. New Brunswick. — In 1713, this Province, being part
of the French colony of Acadie, was, by treaty, ceded , to
the British Crown. This transfer was finally confirmed by
another treaty in 1763. In 1785, New Brunswick, then
the county of Sunbury, (Nova Scotia,) was, by an act of the
Imperial Parliament, separated from Nova Scotia, and
erected into a distinct Province. It was named New
Brunswick, after Brunswick in Lower Saxony, in Germany,
the place of residence, up to 1714, of the present royal
family of England.
6. Ashhurton Treaty, &c. — In 1842 a treaty was negoti-
ated between Great Britain and the United States by Lord
Ashburton. By it the disputed boundary bet\^een Maine
and New Brunswick was settled. This territory contriincd
12,000 square miles, or 7,700,000 acres. Maine received
4,500,000 acres, and New Brunswick 3,200,000.
7. Responsible Oovernment, similar to that in the other
provinces, was introduced in 1848. Since then the Prov-
ince has increased in wealth, population, and importani^o.
8. Confederation in Neio Brunswick. — During 1864-G the
project of confederating the Provinces of British Amer-
ica was discussed in New Brunswick, and in each province.
The result was that in 1807 a basis of union was formally
submitted to the British Parliament and passed into law.
4*
I". "J^
■m
i '
♦i
i XXvi CONFEDERATION OF THE PROVINCES.
PART VI.
CONFEDERATION 01 f HE PROVINCES.
1. History of Confederation. — The germ of confederation,
(as we have seen in the rapid glance which we have taken,)
may be traced in the efforts which were made from time to
time, by the colonies themselves, to overcome the weakness
of their isolated position, and to concentrate their energies
and resources for the purpose of mutual defense. (1) The
first step in this direction was the union of the New Eng-
land colonies in 1643, and (2) in the projected league be-
tween the Dutch, English, and French Colonies in 164:7-60.
(3) Tlie celebrated confederated league which existed
among the Iroquois until 1780 was a remarkable instance
of the sagacious instinct of this brave and noble people to
maintain their power, and to perpetuate their existence.
(4) The project of an extension of this league so as to in-
plude in it the English Colonies (with the Iroquois) was
•urged by the Lords of Trade in 1753; (5) Governor
Shirley of Massachusetts, however, conceived the bolder
plan of a federal union between all the Britisii Colonists
themselves for the purpose of mutual defense. (6) Neither
scheme succeeded at that time; but it was afterwards
fully developed in the memorable union of the thirteen in-
surgent colonies in 1776. (7) In 1784 it was mooted, when
New Brunswick was separated from Nova Scotia. (8) In
1800, Hon. R. J. Uniacke of Nova Scotia brought the nuitter
under the notice of the Imperial authorities. (9) In
1814, Chief Justice Sewell of Quebec wrote a letter to the
Duke of Kent, while in Nova Scotia, advocating a union
of the provinces. (10) In 1822, Sir J. B. Robinson, of To-
ronto, while in England, submitted to the colonial office, by
request, a scheme of union. (11) In 1825 the noted Robert
Mi
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES.
XXVU
Gourley, of Canada, in a letter from London, recom-
mended a scheme of confederation. (12) In 1838 a deputa-
tion from Nova Scotia brought the matter before the Earl of
Durham, Lord High Commissioner, in a conference with them
on the poHtical state of that province. (13) In the same
year, Bishop Strachan of Toronto also urged the expediency
" of consohdating the provinces into one territory or king-
dom," on Lord Durham's attention. (14) Lord Durham
himself also favored the plan of a single "ruled govern-
ment" over that of a "federal union. " (15) In 18-10 the
union of the Canadas too, (16) and in 1843 Elliot Warburton
in his " Hochelaga," advocated an extension of the prin-
ciple to other colonies. (17) In 1849 the British American
Conservative League advocated "colonial union." (18) In
1851 Col. Eankin, of the Canadian Parliament, in an address
to his constituents, and in 1856 in a speech before the House,
urged a "union of colonies." (19) In 1858 the Hon. A. T.
Gait, finance minister of Canada, renewed tue project;
(20) and in the same year the governor-general recom-
mended it in a speech from the throne. (21) In 1864-6
the present confederate scheme was discussed at meetings
of delegates from all the provinces, at Charlottetown,
Prince Edward's Island, and at Halifax and Quebec, and
finally assented to by the British Parliament in 1867.
2. Principle of Confederation. — This act of confederation
provides for the union of the four provinces of Ontario,
(Upper Canada) Quebec, (Lower Canada) Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick, into one Dominion, with the seat of gov-
ernment at Ottawa. The Executive Government consists
of a Governor-general, and a Privy Council of 13 members.
The Legislature consists of three branches, viz., the Governor-
general, 72 senators, and 181 members of the House of Com-
mons. Each Province retains its own Local Government,
viz.. Lieutenant-governor, Legislative Council, and House
of Assembly. (Ontario alone has no legislative council.)
(7=
xxvm
THE CONFEDEllATED PROVINCES.
3. To the Central Legislature belongs the right to deal with
all matters relating to the Public Debt and Property ; the
regulation of trade and commerce ; the raising of money by
any mode or system of taxation ; the borrowing of money
on public credit ; postal service ; the census and statistics ;
militia, military and naval service, and defense ; the fixing
of and providing for the salaries and allowances of civil
and other officers of the Government of Canada; construc-
tion of beacons, buoys, lighthouses, navigation and ship-
ping, quarantine, and the establishment and maintenance
of marine hospitals ; sea-coast and inland fisheries ; ferries
between a Province and a British or foreign country, or
between two provinces ; currency and coinage, banking, in-
corporation of banks, and the issue of paper money, sav-
ings banks, bills of exchange and promissory notes, interest,
legal tender, bankruptcy and insolvency ; weights and
measures ; patents of invention and discovery ; copyrights ;
Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians ; naturalization
and aliens ; marriage and divorce ; the criminal law, except
the constitution of courts of criminal jurisdiction, but in-
cluding the procedure in criminal matters ; the establish-
ment, maintenance, and management of penitentiaries ; and
such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted in the
enumeration of the classes of subjects by the act assigned
exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces.
4. To the Local Legislatures belong matters relating to the
provincial government and revenue ; public lands ; edu-
cation; reformatories and prisons; municipal institutions;
trading licenses; local public works; agriculture; property
and civil rights in the province ; marriage; and the adminis-
tration of justice ; and "generally all matters of a merely
local or private nature in the province;"
5. Financial Arrangements. — The Dominion is made
liable for the debts of all the provinces; and these
provinces are held liable to the Dominion in the following
K I I
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES.
XXIX
ratio — interest payable at the rate of five per cent, per
annum.
Ontario and Quebec for any debt over. . , .$62,500,000
Nova Scotia, ditto, 8,000,000
New Brunswiclv, ditto, 7,000,000
sbip-
The payments to these provinces from the Dominion
government are as follows : —
Province of Ontario $80,000 per annum.
Province of Quebec 70,000 do.
Province of Nova Scotia 60,000 do.
Province of New Brunswick 50,000— and $63,-
000 for ten years, (on account of her small debt.) Each
province is also entitled to 80 cents per head of the popu-
lation as per census of 1861.
6. Intercolonial Trade and Customs. — All articles of the
growth, produce or manufacture of any one of the prov-
inces are admitted free into each of the other provinces.
Only one tarifi" of customs and excise shall prevail in all the
provinces.
7. Intercolonial Railway. — The interest on a loan of
£3,000,000 is guaranteed by the British Government. This
loan is to be expended in the construction of a railway to
connect Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with Quebec and
Ontario.
8. Progress of Population in the Dominion. — The following
table exhibits the progress of population in the four prov-
inces of the Dominion.
1775
8,00>i
90,oo(;
\ 20,000
1800
50,000
225,000
.57,00(1
10,000
1830
1861
1861
Females.
070,510
543,702
165,273
12.1,099
1861
Total.
1,390,091
l.m.'iOO
330,857
2.52,047
3,090,561
1867
Onliirio
158,000
450,000
JSO.OOO
75,000
Males.
726,575
567,804
105,584
129,948
Estimate.
1,802,000
1,:«)0,000
370,000
296,000
Ciiiebcc
Novii ftcotiii
New Briinswidk .
Totttli
196,000
342,000
833,000
1.588,971
1,502,590
3,768,000
9. The present Political Divisions of the whole of British
North America are as follows : —
%.f
XXX
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
Name of Province.
Quebec.
Ontario
Nova Scotin. i
Breton. '
i Cnjie
Mew Brunswick.
Discoverer and Date,
Jncqiies Cartier, ..1535
Clmmpliiin, 10J5
Sehnslian Cabot,. .1408
S^ebiislian Cabot,.. 1498
Jncqnes Cartier, . . 1535
Mode of Acquisition and
Date.
Capitulation,.,.. IT.V.I
Cession, 1703
) Cabot's visit and
t treaty of 17J:!
Capitubition 175?^
Treaty, 1703
Government Establlihed.
rrenuli, 10U8; En(;lish,
J7U4 ; separ. gov'mt,
17!l'i; united, .,1840
i^opar. f,'ov't, 17-!fi ;
Sop. pov't, 1784 ;
united 1819
Pepar. governm't, 1784
THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA,
Name of Province.
Prince Kdward Island.
Discoverer and Date>
^ebuftiaii Cabot,.. 1498
NewCoundland i.Sir Jolin Cabot,.. .1497
Hudson Bay Territory. II. Hudson, 1019 & 1794
Red River Canada Explorers, . . .
Britisb Columbia Sir A. Mackenzie, 1793
Vancouver Island [Sir F. Drake, 1759
Mode of Acquisition and
P'^te-^
Treaty, .7. . . r.~r7G3
Sir H. Gilbert, ...1583
Utrecht treaty, .1713
Treaty,... 1713 & 1703
Lord Selkirk's I
settlement, ISlli
Treaty 1793'
V'couver's visit, . . 1799,
settled, 1848
Government Established.
St'jjarate gov't, ...1771
By diaries 1.. l(iU3;
separate gov't, .1728
Cbartcr, KHO and li-
cense, 1821 and 1842
Crown Colony, ...186-
Art of Parliament,
Cbnrtcr to Hudson
Buy Co 1849
10. The extent, population, and capitals of these divi-
sions of British North America are as follows : —
THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
Name of Provinces,
Area in
Enu. su.
Miles.
■iio.ooi,
15t),0n(
]9,C.."0
i!7,71(;
t^llclltiC
Ontario
Nova Scotia it ('. B. . .
New Brunswick
Popula'
tion.
Lll^.-iliO
1,390,091
.330,P.")7
252,047
Capital.
tlueliec,
Toronto. 1 „..
Ilalirnx. ^Ottawa.
Frcdericton. J
I.
Where Situated.
St. Lawrence.. ,
Lako Ontario.. ,
S. F,. Const
River St. John.
Popu-
lation,
44,425
20,000
7,000
THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMEUICA,
Name of Provinces.
Ptince Kdward Island.
Ncwfiiundliiiid
Hudson Bay Tcrrilorv
lied liivcr
British Columbia
Vancouver Island
Area in
KnR. sq.
Miles.
2,134
57,000
Popula-
tion.
80^857
124,2f*f
■.!.2i,o,(;oo
175.000
10.0011
SlO^-iflO
8,000
18,000
11,403
Capital,
WTicre Siluatnl.
Clinrlottutown 'Nonr c-oiiln- ( I' island. .
St. .Tobns ,S. V'j. I'onriiiiiila
York Factory Ilayrs' I(iv<'r
Fort Garry Aosiiiilioine, lied River
5 Victoria 'S. of island
Popu-
lation.
0,700
•i'i.OOO
.')()U
3,500
11. The general area of these divisions of British North
America is as follows : —
^
1
1
Q
Oi
N.
C[
i
N(
%
PH
Ne
Hii
Re
Br
Va
V{
10
1
Pen
Roc
'WM
Ha
Hnl
Me
II
'*^^|
Pit
Lu
Mil
^
Popu-
lation.
tw7'^
44,425
20.000
7,000
Popu-
hition.
(),7b0
25,(100
500
. 3,500
North
I .'-
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES.
THE DOMINION OP CANADA.
XXXI
Name.
Average
length in
miles.
Average
width in
miles.
Miles of
Sea coast
lines.
Area in
Acres.
Acres in
Cultivation.
Surveyed
Acres uncul-
tivated.
..5,575.00U
..7,304,000
..1,000,000
. .2,905,000
Value of
Farms.
Qiiehec. 1
. . . 1,200
300
100
150
... 1,000
...1,150
.... 500
160,500,000
13,534,300
17,000,000
J 4,804,2;»r)
} 6,051,620
..1,028,0.32
...835,108
172,000.000
Ontario. \
Nova Scotia, i
Ca()e Breton. J ' '
New Bruniwick.
.... 330
190
2!)6,0(K),000
40,000,000
32.000,000
THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA
Name, &e.
Average
length in
Miles.
Average
width in
Miles.
Miles of
Sea- coast
lines.
.... 350
... 1,100
. . . 1,500
.... 900
.... 850
Area in
Acres.
Acres in
Culliva
tion.
Surveyed
Aci«s Un-
cultivated.
Value of
Farms
in dollars.
Prince Edward Island.
.... 130
.... 320
.... 40
.... 130
.... 250
.... 55
..1.370,000
..2,304,000
136.640,000
..8,320,000
. 20«,127
..41,108
..26,500
.. 17,000
..260,000
1,000,000
..73.500
. . . 63,000
8,000,000
1,000,000
Hudson Bay Ter.
Red River.
British Columbia
Vancouver Island. . . .
.... 450
.... 278
..500,000
..300,000
12. Value of Products. — The estimated quantity and
value of the products of the four provinces in the Domin-
ion is as follows : — *
Grain, viz. Wheat, 30,000,000 bushels.
" " Bnrley 8,000,000 "
" " Outs 50,000,000 "
" " Buckwheat 4,000,000 '•
" " Indian Corn 3,0(K),000 ".
" " Rye, 2,000,000 "
97,000,000
.15,000,000
bushels, valued at <60,000,000
ditto 12,000,000
Peas, &c ,
Roots, viz. Potatoes, 50,000,000 "
" " Turnips, &o. ..25,000,000 7.5,000,000 ditto 2,'>,000,000
Hny 2,.'>00,000 tons. .. ditto 25,000,000
Butter and Cheese 75,000,000 tbs ditto 10,000,000
Meats, viz. Mutton, 250,000,000 lbs.
" " Beef, 200,000,000 do.
" " Pork 150,000,000 do 600,000,000 lbs. .. .ditto 35,000,000
P'sh 80,000,000do ditto 3,500,000
Lumber, viz. Oak, I,,'i00,000 cubic feet
" " Elm l,.')0n,000 " "
" " White Pine 25.000,000 " «'
" " Red Pine 4,000,000 " »
" " Tamarack & > „ „„„ ^r^
" Spruce, \ 2.000.000 ....
" " Miscellaneous, 1,000,000 " ".... 3.'5,000,000 cubic feet 30,000,000
Wool 10,000,000 Ibi 5,000,000
Miscellaneous, 5,000,000
Grand Total, $210,500,000
* Year Book of Canada for 18(8, page 40.
; ''
4
xxxu
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES.
13. The Income, Expenditure c&c, of each province in
the Dominion, during the last year of their separate exist-
ence, was about as follows : —
Items.
Quebec and Ontario.
Nova Scotia.
New Brunswick.
816,410,000
14,727,000
62,734,000
69,500,000
,J, 100,000
48,500,000
1,800,000
1,!M)0,000
5,000,000
5,700,000
14,4()0,(MI0
8,050,000
1,4.'>0,000
Expenditure
Debt
J,,T)0,000
5,000,000
Assets
5,054,(H)0
10,000,000
Exports
8,200,000
15. Recent Example of Confederation of States. — It is a
striking fact that during the last few years a more general
and rapid confederation of States has taken place, than had
occurred during the whole of the preceding century. Not
to mention the absorption of the native states in India under
British rule, we have seen how rapid has been the consoli-
dation of Italy into one kingdom. Later, there took place
in the United States a memorable contest against a princi-
ple of separation of States. Within the last year or two,
the fate of one noted battle led to the absorption by Prus-
sia of a number of petty States in Germany ; and now
guided by an unerring ins'inct four large provinces of
British America have confederated themselves together
into one Dominion.
16. The Objects and Advantages of such a confederation
may be stated in a few words : It has long been the desire of
the sagacious statesmen of the Dominion to concentrate the
resources and energies of the isolated provinces into a pow-
erful and prosperous State, and thus to give free scope, on a
wider and broader field, for the enterprise and talent of a
young and growing people ; to enable them to present a
bold and united front against aggression or absorption, by
an active and powerful rival ; to develop internal trade and
commerce; to bring into settlement and productive life
large tracts of outlying territory, now a vast uninhabited
forest, in the various provinces ; and, as was fitting, at this
period in the history of the provinces, to lay broad and deep
.1
I
?%
THE CONrEDERATED PROVINCES.
xxxiii
mce in
3 exist-
inswick.
1,000
),000
),000
J.OOO
1,000
J,000
-It is a
general
ban had
jr. Not
La under
consoli-
3k place
a princi-
or two,
)y Prus-
nd now
inces of
together
the foundation of a new nationality, whose heritage and
birthright are the priceless blessings of civil and religious
freedom, as long felt and enjoyed in England and in these
provinces. — A nationality whose future should witness the
consolidation and growth, on this continent, of those princi-
ples of British colonial freedom which are so eminently cal-
culated to promote internal peace and prosperity, and, under
God's blessing, the enjoyment also of " ILP and liberty," as
well as " the pursuit of happiness," among all classes of
people.
deration
iesire of
trate the
0 a pow-
3pe, on a
ent of a
jresent a
)tion, by
rade and
tive life
nhabited
^, at this
md deep
'I
'il
II
,11
i
''fiU
PREFACE.
•^
m
The business of the historian of the earlier ages of the
world was to record changes in forms of government, to
give accounts of long and bloody wars, and to narrate the
rise or fall of dynasties and empires. From the days of
Herodotus, to the middle of the last century, the world
made little progress. It is true, that great empires rose one
after another upon the ruins of their predecessors ; but so far
from there being any thing like real progress, the reverse
seems to have been the case. It has remained for the pres-
ent age to witness a rapid succession of important inven-
tions and improvements, by means of which the power of
man over nature has been incalculably increased, and re-
sulting in an unparalleled progress of the human race.
But great as has been the movement in the world at
large, it is on the North American continent that this has
been most remarkable. The rise of the United States.
from a few feeble colonies to a high rank among nations,
has never ceased to attract the attention of the world ; and
their cancer has been indeed so wonderful, that the quiet
but equally rapid growth and development of the Bntioh
PBEFACE.
Korth American provinces has received comparatively
little notice. It will be seen from the following pages that
they have at least kept pace with their powerful southern
neighbors, and that, though laboring under some disad-
vantages, they have in eighty years increased tenfold, not
only in population but in wealth ; they have attained to a
point of power that more than equals that of the united
colonies when they separated from the mother country.
They have, by means of canals, made their great rivers and
remote inland seas accessible to the shipping of Europe ;
they have constructed a system of railroads far surpassing
those of some of the European powers ; they have estab-
lished an educational system which is behind none in the
old or the new world ; they have developed vast agricul-
tural and inexhaustible mineral resources ; tliey ];ave done
enough, in short, to indicate a magnificent future — enough
to point to a progress which shall place the provinces, with-
in the days of many now living, on a level with Great
Britain herself, in population, in wea^'^ and in power. If
in the next eighty years the provinces should prosper as
they have in the eighty years that are past, which there
seems no reason to doubt, a nation of forty millions will
have arisen in the North.
To exhibit this progress is the object of the present vol-
ume. It will be seen, from the well-known names of the
gentlemen who have contributed to its pages, that a high
order of talent has been secured to carry out the design of
the work.
CONTENTS.
Physical Features op Canada
Page
• 13
Agricultural Hlstory op Canada • • » 32
Agricultural Societies in Upper Canada • • 39
52
64
74
94
Agricultural Productions op Canada • *
Forest Industry •••»,,
The North- WE3T Territory , , , ,
The New Parliament Buildings at Ottawa .
By Henry Youle Hind, M. A., F.B.G.S., Profcsaor of
Chemistry and Geology in Trinity College, Toronto;
Author of Narrative of the Canadian Exploring Expedition
in North-wctft British America; Explorations in Labrador,
and in tho Country of tho Montagnaia and Nasquapeo
Indians; Editor of tho British American Magazine, and
Of the Journal of the Board of Arte for Upper Canada.
i iiiji::'
6 CONTENTS.
PAGB
Travel and Transportation .
. 99
Roads in Lower Canada
. 104
Roads in Upper Canada
. 109
Bridle and Winter Roads
. 116
Corduroy Roads
. 119
,,^^ Common or Graded Roads
. 120
gc Turnpike and Plank Roads
. 122
Macadam Roada ....
. 123
Water Communications
. 129
Ocean Steamers ....
. 141
Early Navigation of the St. Lawrence
. 146
Railways in Canada , , .
. 187
Grand Trunk Railway
. 197
Causes of Failure of the Grand Trunk
Railway ,
208
Municipal Railways .
. 214
Railway Morality ....
• •
. 221
Great Western Railway
. 229
Buffalo, Brantford, and Goderich Railway
. 234
Grain Portage Railways , ,
• • •
. 236
Inter-Colouial Railway
• •
. 238
Railway Policy ....
• • •
. 247
Express Companies , , ,
• •
. 260
Canadian Gauge . , ,
• • •
. 263
Horse Railways ....
• •
265
Bv Tno8, C. Kkefer, Civil Engineer,
Author of "
Phi-
losophy of Railroads," Prize Essay
on the Can a
ls of
Canada, &c.
I
*
CONTENTS. 7
Pagb
Victoria Bridge 257
The Electric Telegraph in Canada, Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick ....... 266
Commerce and Trade . ... , ,
. 2r
Eariy Trade of Canada
. 20 .
Fur Trade
. 275
Ship-Building and Lumber Trade .
. 284
Produce Trade
. 290
Present Trade of Canada ....
. 292
The Reciprocity Treaty
. 296
Channels of Trade
. 298
Immigration
. 301
Free Grants of Land and Colonization Roads. ,
. 303
Br Hknrt Youlk Hind, M. A., F. R. G. S., &o
Mineral Resources of British North America . . 308
Geological Structure of Canada . , . .310
Catalogue of useful Minerals found in Canada . .313
Mineral Resources of Nova Scotia . • . . 360
Mineral Resources of New Brunswick .... 360
Mineral Resources of Newfoundland . . . 363
Mineral Resources of British Columbia and Vancouver
Island 365
Mineral Resources of the North-west Territory . , 371
Br Charles Robd, Mining Engineer, Author of '*The
Metals in Canada,*' <kc.
UiSi.tk.iiM,.''
O CONTENTS.
Historical Sketch of Education in Upper Canada .
Early Educational Eftbrts . . . . ,
Educational Legislation, 1800-181 6
First Establislimcnt of Common Schools, 1816-1822
Fitful Progress from 1822 to 1836.
Parliamentary Inquiry and its Results, 1836-1843
Paqb
. 373
374
. 381
384
. 390
395
Improvement, Change, and Progress, from 1844 to 1853 399
Higher and Intermediate Education, &c., 1853-1861
Summary of each Class of Educational Institutions
Public Elementary Schools receiving Legislative Aid .
Elementary Schools not receiving Legislative Aid
Superior Schools receiving Legislative Aid . .
Superior Schools not receiving Public Aid
Professional Schools ......
Universities — Supplementary Elementary Educational
Agencies ..... . .
Other Supplementary Educational Agencies
Additional Supplementary Aids to Education
Educational Endowments for Upper Canada . .
Historical Sketch op Education in Lower Canada .
Early Educational Eftbrts in Lower Canada, 1632-1759
State of Education from the Conquest, 1759, until 1800
Unfulfilled Promises and Failures, 1801-1818 .
Comn^on School Legislation^ 1819-1835
Final Educational Measures of the Lower Canada Legis-
lature ........
A New Foundation Laid — First Steps onward, 1841-1855
Normal Schools — Renewed Activity and Progress, 1850
Universities ........
Classical and Industrial Colleges ....
Academies for Boys and Girls .....
Normal Schools — Professional or Special Schools
Model, Elementary, and I'iivate Schools, (fee.
Educational Communities, Societies, and School Organ-
i/Ations .....*.
401
407
409
430
431
433
435
467
468
476
477
485
485
488
491
495
499
503
500
508
523
630
532
533
534
CONTENTS.
9
Supplementary Elementary Educational Agencies
Educational Statistics and Parliamentary Grants
Page
538, 639
540, 5-41
By J. Georgk IIodqins LL. B., F. R. G. S., Author of the
" Geography and History of British North America,"
" Lo veil's General Geography," &c.
The Progress of New Brunswick, with a Brief View
ITS Resources, Natural and Industrial . ,
Sketch of the Early History of New Brunswick
Descriptive and Statistical Account
The Forest
The Fisheries .....
Geology of the Province
Mines, Mnerals, and Quarries . .
Ship-BuiUling ....
Mills and Manufactures . .
Internal Communication . . .
Railways . . . , . ,
Electric Telegraph Lines . .
ComraQ,rce and Navigation .
Form of Government . .
Judicial Institutions ....
Tenure of Land and Law of Inheritance
Religious Worship and Means of Education
Education ......
Civil List, Revenue, and Expenditures . .
Banks for Savings; Value of Coins; Rate of Interest
General Information for Immigrants . . .
Fruits and Vegetables ......
Wild Beasts and Game — Aborigines . , , •
Natural Resources .......
Progress of Population — Description by Counties
OF
. 543
543
. 553
562
. 575
586
. 591
598
. 600
601
. 605
606
. 607
610
. 611
613
. 614
615
. 618
619
. 620
624
. 625
627
. 628
By M. II. Perlev, Esq., British Commissioner for tho
North American Fisheries, under the Reciprocity Treaty
with the United States.
^^^HuM»-'
10
COKTENTS.
l|!i:
The Progress of Nova Scotia, with a Brief View of
Resources, Natural and Industrial . .
Discovery and Early Fortunes of Nova Scotia^,
Situation — Extent — Natural Features — Climate, «fec.
Natural Resources ......
Population, Statistics, &c. . . . •
Industrial Resources ....
Commercial Industry . . • . .
Public Works, Revenue, Crown Lands, <fec.
Education and Educational Institutions .
Ecclesiastical Condition of the Province .
Political State of the Province ....
General Civilization, Social Progress, Literature, &c.
Sable Island .
Paqb
ITS
. 655
655
. 661
667
. 678
685
. 691
696
. 705
712
. 715
720
. 727
Prince Edward Island
Situation, Extent, General Features, Early History,
Natural Resources, Climate, &c. . . .
Industrial Resources
Population, Education, Civil Institutions, &c., .
Newfoundland .......
Situation, Discovery, and Early History .
Topography, Natural Resources, Climate, &c.
Industrial Resources .....
Population, Civil and Religious Institutions .
&c,
729
, 729
735
. 737
739
. 746
746
. 748
752
. 767
By Rev. William Murray.
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
CHAPTER I.
BOUNDARIES.
MoNTEEAL, the commercial capital of Canada, is situated
at an equal distance from the extreme western and eastern
boundaries of the province. The source of Pigeon River,
(long. 90'^ 50',) one of the foaming tributaries of Lake Su-
perior, forty-six miles in a straight line from its mouth, and
1,653 feet above the sea, is the point where its western
hmits touch the boundary between the United States and
British America. Blanc Sablon harbor, (long. 57° 50',) in
the Grulf of St. Lawrence, and close to the western ex-
tremity of the Straits of Belle Isle, marks the eastern limits
of Canada, touching Labrador, a dreary waste under the
jurisdiction of Newfoundland. Draw a line through the
dividing ridge which separates the waters flowing into
Hudson's Bay from those tributary to the St. Lawrence, and
the ill-defined and almost wholly unknown northern limits
of the Province are roughly represented. The boundary
line between Canada and the United States follows the
course of Pigeon River, runs north of Isle Royale, strikes
through the center of Lake Superior, the St. Mary's River,
Lake Huron, the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit
River, Lake Erie, the Niagara River, Lake Ontario, and the
St. Lawrence as far down as the intersection of the 45th
parallel of latitude. It follows this parallel to near the head
waters of the Connecticut River, when, striking north-east, it
'^iLAsjt^-'-
14
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
pursues an undulating course rougWy parallel to the St.
Lawrence, and from thirty to one hundred miles distant
from it, until it reaches the north entrance of the Bay of
Chaleui's in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The States of the
American Union which abut on this long and sinuous fron-
tier, are Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New
Y'ork, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and the British
Province of New Brunswick.
The vast tract of country called the Province of Canada,
has an area of about 340,000 square miles, 140,000 belong-
ing to Upper Canada, and 200,000 to the lower division
of the province. It lies wholly within the valley of the St.
Lawrence, in which are included the most extensive and the
grandest system of fresh water lakes in the world.
THE GREAT LAKES AND THE 6T. LAWRENCE.
The bottom of Lake Superior is 600 feet below the level
of the ocean, its mean surface is exactly 600 feet above it.
With a length of 300 miles and a breadth of 140 miles,
it comprises a water area of 32,000 square miles, and sup-
posing its mean depth to be 600 feet, it contains 4,000
cubic miles of water. It is the grand head of the St. Law-
rence, receiving the waters of many tributaries, and dis-
charging them into Lake Huron by the St, Marj^'s Eiver,
with a fall of nearly 20 feet in half a mile, to overcome Avhich,
the most magnificent locks in the Avorld have been con-
structed on the United States side, thus forming, with the
WelUuid and the St. Lawrence canals, an uninterrupted
communication with the sea, and enabling large vessels from
any part of the world to penetrate one-third across the con-
tinent of America in its broadest part, or about 2,000 miles
from its ocean boundary.
Lake Huron, the next fresh water sea in succession, has
an area of 21,000 square miles, and, like its great feeder,
Lake Superior, it is vcr leep, 1,000 feet in some places
THE PHVSICAL FEATUKKS OF CANADA.
15
having been measured. The great Manitoulin Island,
(1,500 square miles in area,) with others belonging to the
same ehain, divide the lake into two portions, tlie northern
part being called Georgian Bay. It receives numerous
important tributaries on the north side, among wliich
French Kiver is the most interesting, in consequence of its
being on the line of a proposed canal communication be-
tween the Ottawa and Lake Huron, The distance between
^Monlreal and the mouth of French River is 430 miles, and
of this distance 852 are naturally a good navigation ; of
the remaining 78 miles it would be necessary to canal 29
miles in order to complete the communication for steam
vessels. These data are the result of careful governmental
surveys, and are calculated for vessels of one thousand tons
burthen. The cost of establishing this important com-
munication is estimated at $12,057,680. The distance
between Chicago and Montreal by the St. Lawrence is
1,34:8 miles, by the Ottawa and Huron Canal route 1,005
miles.
Lake St. Clair forms the connecting link between Lake
Huron and Lake Erie, another magnificent sea of fresh
water, 265 miles long and 50 broad on the average, with a
depth of 120 feet. Its sliorcs, particularly on the United
States side, are the seats of numerous populous cities ; its
waves on the north shore wash the garden of Canada — the
fertile western peninsula. The last of this great and magnifi-
cent chain is Lake Ontario, separated from Lake Erie by the
Niagara River, in whose short and tumultuous course oc-
curs the most stupendous cataract on the face of the globe.
Before reaching Niagara Falls the river descends about 50
feet in less than a mile, over limestone rocks, and then
plunges 165 feet perpendicularly. For seven miles more
the torrent rushes through a narrow gorge, varying from 200
to 400 yards in width and 300 feet deep. It then emerges
into a flat, open country, at Queenstown, and after a further
li0Au-
16
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
••'I I, ■
'Hi
i,.:!i'
flow of about twelve miles, glides peacefully into Lake
Ontario.
Lake Ontario is 180 miles long, 50 broad, 600 feet deep,
and has an area of 6,300 square miles; it discbarges its wa-
ters, together with those of the upper lakes, by the River St.
Lawrence into the gulf of the same name. A few miles
above Montreal, the Ottawa lliver comes in from the north,
draining an area of 80,000 square miles. Below Montreal
the St. Maurice debouches into the St. Lawrence at Three
Rivers, drawing contributions from 22,000 square miles of
timbered country. At Quebec the St. Lawrence is 1,314
yards wide, but the basin below the city is two miles
across, and three and three-quarters long. From this point
the vast river goes on increasing in size as it swells onward
toward the gulf, receiving numerous large tributaries,
among which is the famous Saguenay, 250 feet deep where
it joins the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 feet deep some distance
above the point of junction. Below Quebec the St. Law-
rence is not frozen over, but the force of the tides inces-
santly detaches ice from the shores, and such immense
masses are kept in continual agitation by the flux and re-
flux, that navigation is totally impracticable during part of
the winter season. Vessels from Europe pass up the great
system of canals which render the St. Lawrence navigable
for 2,030 miles, and land their passengers at Chicago without
transshipment.
The table on the following page shows a profile of this
ship route from Anticosti, in the Estuary of the St. I^aw-
rence, to Superior City :
III
<^ -
w*»^r*
^ff'^^tn.
;^yifc*iu»M.-' ■
THH PHY-
and ha^
i<-r>.
iucclu:
sizoas
260 ieet deep wb( c jl.
JJOi'JW ».^
«... r--.w.
tho J^
fti
i/-*l
:■!
:il
fT!S->->/
^
Y-'w ''■■'♦nw*?*\"^
IVI
The enti
miles. Th
which do n
to the gall
their level
erally state
1. The r
February.
2. The rr
3. The n
4. The n
feet and six
5. There
their levels
upon lunar
The St. ;
000,000 cul
2
^m
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 19
Namei.
Distance from
Anticosti
in miles.
Elevation
above the
Sea level.
"3 .
.s-g
Si
5
9
7
1
2
200
200
200
200
■S a
« =
45
45
45
45
1
ii
■5 .3
44} \
824 '
43
4
12
410
590
5'J8i
614
6f)2i
073i
688
14
14-58
58..5-14I.3
142.fr 185.6
190.5-105
195.3-207
Montreal
Lachine Canal
Beauharnois do
Cornwall do
Farren's Point do
Rapid Flat do
Ft. Iroquois Canal...
Galops do.. . .
6901
714i
207-213
213-225
1
2
—
—
6
8
Lake Ontario
Welland Canal
766
1016
234
234-564
27
150
26i
330
1041
1280
564
564
Detroit River
Lake St. Clair
River St. Clair
1355
1580
1050
573
573-582.5
582.5-6C0
2
550
75
I'n
River Ste. Miirie
BaultSte. Marie Canal
Lake Sn|)erior
Fort William
Superior City
1650
1910
2030
600
The entire area of the great lakes is about 91,0u0squure
miles. They are remarkable for the purity of their waters,
which do not contain more than eight grains of solid matter
to the gallon of 70,000 grains. The variations to which
their level is subjected are common to all, and may be gen-
erally stated to be as follows :
1. The mean minimum level is attained in January or
February.
2. The mean maximum level is in June.
3. The mean annual variation is twenty-eight inches.
4. T!ie maximum variation in twelve years has been four
feet and six inches.
5. There is no periodicity obsui vable in the variations of
their levels, and there is no flux and reflux dependent
upon lunar influence.
The St. Lawrence carries past the city of Montreal 50,-
000,000 cubic feet of water in a minute, and in the course
2
L
'it
I
Hi
20 THB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
of one year becars 143,000,000 tons of solid materials held
in solution, to the sea. All the phenomena of a mighty-
river may here be witnessed on a stupendous scale, its
irresistible ice masses, crushing and grinding one another
in the depth of winter, its wide-spreading and devasta-
ting floods in spring, its swelling volume stealing on with
irresistible power in summer, broken here and there by
tumultuous and surging rapids or by swift and treacherous
currents, or by vast and inexhaustible lakes. As it ap-
proaches the ocean it rolls on between iron-bound coasts,
bearing the tributary waters of a region equal to half Europe
in area, and subject to a climate which vainly endeavors to
hold it frost-bound for fully one-third of the j'-ear. The
whole valley of the St. Lawrence is a magnificent example
of the power of water in motion, and the great lakes them-
selves arc splendid illustrations of the " dependence of the
geographical features of a country upon its geological
structure."
The following table shows the relative magnitude of the
great laices of the St. Lawrence valley :
Area in Elevation Menn
Names of Lakes. Sqiinro Miles, uljovetlioyea. Jlcplli.
Lnke Superior 32,000 600 1,000
Greon Bay 2,000 578 ftOO
Lake Michigan.. . 22,400 578 1,000
Lake Huron 19,200 578 1,000
Lake St. Clair 300 .')70 120
Lake Krio 9,600 5G5 84
Lalco Ontario 0,300 232 GOO
Total area, ... . 91,860
The greatest known depth of Lake Ontario is 780 feet ; in
Lake Superior, however, a line 1,200 feet long has, in some
i^arts, fiiilcd in reaching the bottom.
OEOaRAPIIICAL SURFACE OF CANADA.
The western peninsula, comprehending the rich tract of
oountry west of an undulating escarpment or ancient sea
rLi
f. '•%->. ^■.-„^,
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OB' CANADA.
21
margin, reaching from Queenstown on the Niagara, round the
head of Lake Ontario, and thence north to Georgian Bay,
Lake Huron, is a gently sloping plain, deeply covered
with drift clays ; the highest part of this plain is at the
Blue Mountains, abutting on Georgian Bay, where their
northwestern escarpment is about 1,000 feet above Lake
Huron. From the central townships of Proton and Luther,
a low axis or water parting causes the rivers to discharge
west into Lake Huron and cast into Lake Erie, as far south
as the head-waters of the Thames, which flows in a south-
westerly direction to Lake St. Clair. Joining the ancient
sea margin about half way between Lake Ontario and
Nottawasaga Bay, Lake Huron, a ridge of drift, about 700
feet above whce the Northern Railway crosses it, pursues
a course roughly parallel to Lake Ontario, but with gradu-
ally diminishing altitude, and terminates near the Bay of
Quints. This ridge of drift blocks up a communication
which once existed between Georgian Bay and Lake On-
tario. There is strong evidence to prove that another
' Niagara' formerly existed somewhere between Lake Hu-
ron and Ontario, probably in the neighborhood of the line
of the Northern Railway. A direct artificial water com-
munication between these lakes is now advocated. In the
rear of these subordinate elevations, which only slightly
diversify the great plain of western Canada, the Lauren-
tide mountains, stretching from Lake Suj)erior to Labrador,
sej)arate the valley of the St. Lawrence from the region
tributary to Hudson's Bay. Tho Laurcntidos ajiproach or
forni the north shores of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence
from Labrador to near Quebec; they then retire from the
river by degrees, and at [Montreal are thirty miles from
the St. Lawrence, They cross the Ottawa one hundred and
fifty miles from ^[ontreal, and, bending round, approach the
St. Lawrence again in the direction of Kingston. From
this point they run in a north-westerly direction, and form
'riMM.A*L-'
22
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
the rough country in the rear of Lakes Huron and Su-
perior, and the water parting between the St. Lawrence val-
ley and Hudson's Bay. The height of land is really a table-
land, diversified with innumerable lakes, large and small,
but west of the Saguenay Eiver, not distinguished by moun-
tains possessing any considerable altitude. In the rear of
the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, detached peaks of the
Laurentides attain an elevation of 2,000, and even 3,000 feet.
Forty miles from the coast, opposite Anticosti, they have an
elevation of 3,200 feet, and on the great table land of the
Labrudor Peninsula there are isolated peaks at least 5,000
feet above the sea level. On the south of the St. Lawrence,
the level valley of the river is from thirty to forty miles
broad as far as the base of the prolongation of the Green
Mountains of Vermont, in which range detached peaks at-
tain an elevation of about 4,000 feet. The Notre Dame moun-
tains in the District of Gasp6 are very imposing ; they vary
in width from two to six miles, and in height from 2,000 to
3,778 feet. Viewed as a whole, the entire valley of the St.
Lawrence from Lake Superior to Quebec, may be regarded as
occupying part of the north-eastern rim of the immense basin
of sedimentary rocks which form the United States, a portion
of Mexico and British America west of Lake Winnipeg.
The broad and low Laurentides stretching from Labrador
to the Arctic sea separate this basin from the northern one,
in part occupied by Hudson's Bay.
THE SOILS OP CANADA.
The geological structure of different parts of this vast
extent of country determines, to a considerable degree, the
character of the soils which form the surface. The soils in
the western part of the province are derived from the 'drift,'
which is made up of the ruins of the crystalline rocks of the
Laurentides and of the sedimentary rocks lying to the north
of any particular locality or in its immediate neighborhood
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
23
In the extreme western peninsula the rich clays consist of
remodeled ' drift,' and are of lacustrine origin. In the
valley of the St. Lawrence below Montreal, the clays are
marine, and not unfrequently contain a considerable pro-
portion of calcareous matter. Below Quebec, on the south
shores, the soils are derived from the disintegration of the
red slates found in that region, while in the eastern town-
ships the drift and debris of the altered rocks, which distin-
guish that part of the country, form the surface covering.
In the region of the Laurentides, the fertile belts or strips
consist either of 'drift' or of the ruins of crystalline lime-
stone, and soda and lime feldspars, but the area covered by
arable soil in the rocky region of the Laurentides is com-
paratively very small, and necessarily limits the progress
of settlement north of the St. Lawrence and great lakes.
The area in Canada occupied by sedimentary rocks, where
in general rich and fertile soils abound, is about 80,000 square
miles ; the region embraced by the crystalline rocks is about
240,000 square miles in extent, five-sixths of which may
be said to be wholly incapable of cultivation.
KOOK FORMATIONS.
The whole of the peninsula of Western Canada, the val-
ley of the St. Lawrence south of the Laurentides, the val-
leys and depressions in the peninsula of Gasp6, are more
or less deeply covered with clays interstratified with sand
and gravel, which belong to quarternary deposits, and in
some parts are overlaid by alluvium. The i-egion of the
Laurentides alone exposes over the greater part of its vast
extent, bare crystalline sedimentary rocks, the oldest, as far
as is known, in the world, and named after the great river
where they are developed on such a stupendous scale, the
'Laurentian Series.'
Between the Post Tertiary and the base of the Carbonif-
erous, the entire scries of sedimentary rocks is wanting in
k'i
iw* \r
uAm^>
24
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
Canada, with the exception of small patches of Tertiary
Formations which have escaped denudation.
THE QUARTERNARY DEPOSITS.
The stratified clays, sands and gravels contain the remains
of many species of marine animals, identical with those now
found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, often at an altitude of
500 feet above the level of the sea. Sixty-three species of
marine invertebrates from the Post-Pliocene or Pleistocene
clays of the St. Lawrence valley have been disinterred. The
quarternary deposits form the soil of a large portion of the
country. They contain cla3^s suitable for the fabrication of
red, white and yellow bricks; molding sands, tripoli, shell
marl, bog iron ore, ochre, and in the eastern part of Canada
they are overlaid by peat, which occupies depressions.
THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS.
If we suppose that the quarternary deposits were swept
away, and the whole of the underlying rocks laid bare, the
formations of Canada older than the post tertiary would be
found to consist of the following series :
1. A small area of the Carboniferous.
2. The Devonian Series.
8. The Silurian Series.
4. The Iluronian or Cambrian Series.
5. The Laurcntian Series.
These rocks form part of the Great Southern Basin of
North America; the geographical limits of Canada, while
embracing a large portion of its northern rim, penetrate
like a wedge towards its center, by means of the peninsular
portion of the western part of the province. An anticlinal
axis separates this basin into two subordinate divisions, the
line of demarkation running from the valley of the Hudson
towards Quebec. The western subordinate basin contains
the great coal fields of the United Slates, the eastern portion
1^'" '^^^^flt;^^
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
25
embraces those of New Brunswick and Massachusetts.
" The rocks of these two basins present remarkable diiTer-
ences in their cliemical and physical conditions. The for-
mations of the western basin are nearly horizontal, and offer
a perfect conformity, Avhile in those of the east there is
discordance between the upper and lower Silurian, and be-
tween the Devonian and Carboniferous formations. The
strata of thp. eastern basin are moreover very much folded
and contorted, and have in some parts undergone profound
chemical and mineralogical changes."*
The highest formation in Western Canada is the. Portage
and Chemung group, or the upper portion of the Devonian
Series, which includes the Hamilton group, the Cornifer-
ous limestone, the Oriskany sandstone, &c., of the New
York geologists. In the extreme west of the province, where
patches of the Portage group occur, extraordinary springs
of petroleum have been tapped by boring to the depth of
from 200 to 300 feet, on the summit of an anticlinal axis.
The source of the petroleum is probably the underlying
Corniferous limestone. The yield from four springs, which
send pure petroleum about thirty feet above the surface of
the ground, is estimated at fifteen thousand barrels a day.
Lying beneath the Devonian Series are the Onondaga Salt
Group, the Niagara limestone and the Medina sandstone of
the Upper Silurian Series. Next follow the Middle Silurian
rocks, represented by the Iludson Eiver Group and Utica
Slate, the Oneida Conglomerates not having been found
in Western Canada. The Lower Silurian Series is repre-
sented in regular sequence by the Trenton, Black llivor,
Birds-eye and Chazy limestones, succeeded by the Calcifer-
ous sand-rock and the Potsdam sandstone which rests upon
the ancient crystalline rocks of Huronian or Laurentian
* Sketch of tho Geology of Canada, by Sir W. E. Logan, F. R. S., and T.
Storry Hunt, P. G. S.
i:.)kJlkA^iM^
26
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
I
age. Tracks of a large crustacean are numerous in the Pots-
dam sandstone, coprolites occur in abundance at the sum-
mit of the Calciferous sand-rock, the succeeding limestones
are very rich in fossils, and the Utica slate is distinguished by
abundance of bitumen, which has been used as a source of
oil derivec? from its destructive distillation, but not, com-
mercially, v/ith success. The Onondaga salt group furnishes
gypsum and brine springs. The marbles of the lower lime-
stones are susceptible of a fine polish, and hydraulic cement
of the best quality occurs in many parts of the provin le.
The highest rock in the eastern basin is a millstone grit,
which forms the base of the New Brunswick coal field. It
occurs in the Peninsula of Gasp6, and is underlaid by De-
vonian sandstone of great thickness, (7,000 feet,) which re-
poses on limestone and shales of the Upper Silurian Series,
resting upon rock of Middle Silurian age. Some members
of the Lower Silurian Series are highly metamorphosed and
developed to an extraordinary extent in the vicinity of Que-
bec and elsewhere, showing a thickness of 7,000 feet, and
distinguished by metaliferous veins; hence, although of
the age of the Potsdam sandstone and the Calciferous sand-
rock, they have been named the Quebec Group, also the
Taconic system, and the Upper Copper-bearing rocks of
Lake Superior. They are of vast economic importance, in-
asmuch as they form the great metaliferous formation of
North America, containing gold, lead, copper, zinc, silver,
cobalt, nickel, chromium and titanium. They are traceable
from Gasp6 to Alabama, under various designations, and
thence to the west side of the Mississippi, through Kansas
to Lake Superior, without suffering any diminution in
volume. The copper ores in Eastern Tennessee and those
of Acton in Lower Canada, belong to this important group,
as well as the lead, copper, zinc, &c., of Missouri, and the
copper of Lake Superior.
On the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Quebec
gi'oup rest
reposes al
The Huro
quartzites,
It is the 1
mense bee
series. It
The Laure
and is com
dorite. T
limestone
altered sei
probably e
found in so
thick, gre;i
tributed ci
importance
Canada co
fossiliferoul
Laurentian
ered with q
stones, and
gration a f(
rentian coi
from the {
districts.
The gee
remarkable
the country
modified b;
valley of t
water, is re
country be
tudes whicl
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
27
gi'oup rests unconformably on the Iluronian Series, which
reposes also unconformably upon the Laurentian Series.
The Huronian Series is 18,000 feet thick, and consists of
quartzites, thin limestone bands, slate rocks and diorite.
It is the lower copper-bearing rock of America. The im-
mense beds of iron ore at Marquette also belong to this
series. It is traversed by a vast number of trappean dykes.
The Laurentian system is the oldest known system of rocks,
and is composed of gneiss, crystalline limestone and Labra-
dorite. This series is of enormous thickness, one band of
limestone being 1,000 feet thick, and the entire mass of
altered sediments composing the vast Laurentian series
probably exceeds 20,000 feet. Traces of fossils have been
found in several localities ; beds of iron ore hundreds of feet
thick, great veins of metallic sulphurets with widely dis-
tributed crystalline limestone bands, give great economic
importance to the series. The geographical surface of
Canada contains about 80,000 square miles of unaltered
fossiliferous rocks, and probably 230,000 square miles of the
Laurentian Series. Where the Laurentian Series is not cov-
ered with quarternary deposits, the belts of crystalline lime-
stones, and soda and lime feldspars, produce upon disinte-
gration a fertile soil, so that the cultivable area in the Lau-
rentian country is much greater than would be inferred
from the gneissoid character of the formation in many
districts.
THE CLIMATE OF CANADA.
The geographical position of Canada has necessarily a
remarkable inlluence upon the climates of different parts of
the country. The western peninsula has its climate greatly
modified by the vast lakes which almost encircle it. The
valley of the St. Lawrence below Kingston, as far as tide
water, is removed from this ameliorating influence, and the
country below Quebec is subject to many of those vicissi-
tudes which belong to great estuaries and the sea-coast. The
!>te:
U
Jfciiibiiui^-^'
! 1
:fi1
ill
28
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
M
north shores of Lake Huron and Superior, and the back
country north of a line extending from Lake Huron to
Ottawa, and removed from the influence of the great lakes,
possess a very rigorous climate, in which intense winter cold,
prolonged through many weeks, is followed by a short but
hot summer, succeeded by genial autumnal months.
Meteorological observations have been carried on for
many years, at three separate points, which may represent
the centers of the different climates of Canada in the settled
parts of the country. At Toronto, (1862,) the mean an-
nual temperature for a period of 22 years, has been 44°. 12,
the warmest month, July, has a mean of 66°.85 ; the coldest
month on the average of 22 years is February, which has a
mean temperature of 22°.98. The highest temperature re-
corded was 99°.2, the lowest, — 26°.5. The average range of
temperature during the same period amounts to 102°.7. The
average fall of rain during 21 years was 30.32 inches. The
greatest rain-fall in one month was 9.76 inches, the greatest
in one day, 3.36 inches; but the average for 21 years of the
greatest rain-fall in one day is 2.14 inches. The average fall
of snow for 21 years is 61.6 inches, and the number of days
on which snow falls is 57. The total average depth of snow
and rain during 21 years is 86.49 inches. The average
number of days on which rain or snow falls is 163. Sep-
tember is the most humid month. The resultant direction
of the wind during a period of 14 years is N. 60 W. The
mean velocity per hour being 1.85 miles ; but without re-
gard to direction, the mean velocity is 6.78 on an average
of 14 years. The mean humidity of May, June and July,
deduced from a period of 21 years, is 74.
At MoN'j'REAL, (1856,) the mean temperature of the air
for a period of 7 years, was 41°.56. The absolute mean
range for the same period has been from 90°.9 to 27°.4 be-
low zero. The highest temperature in the shade recorded
was 100".!, the lowest 36°.2 below zero, giving a climatic
TUB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
29
range of 136°.3. The degree of humidity is represented by
.84. The average number of days on which rain fell was
73 per annum, and of days on which snow fell 43 ; or in all,
116 days on which precipitation took place. The rain-full
amounted to 43.004 inches ; the depth of snow to 95.76
inches, or 52,380 inches of precipitation reduced to the form
of rain. The mean of evaporation from the surface is nearly
21 inches during the spring, summer and autumn. The
most prevailing wind is the westerly. The snow storms are
from the N. E. by E., on the average.
The following table shows the monthly mean temperature
at four different stations between the head of Lake Ontario
and Quebec inclusive. From it an idea of the difference in
climate between those far separated points may be inferred.
The period over which the observations extend is the year
1855, but it is probable that the means of a large number of
years would produce slight but comparatively unimportant
changes in the observed temperatures. From this table the
chief differences in the climates of the districts of which they
are centers may be deduced.
TABLE
Of the Mean Monthly Temperatures at Hamilton and Toronto, (Upper Cana-
da,) and Montreal and Quebec, (Lower Canada,) for the year 1855.
Hamilton. Toronto. Montreal. Quebec.
(Lilt. 43° 16') (Lilt. 43° 39') ,, „o gon /i., 46^ 40",
Head of Lake Ontorio. 341 ft. nhove the sea. '^"- *^ •'"' ■' ^^"' ^^ *'' -'
1855. 18.55. 1855. 1855.
Months. Months, Months. Months. Months.
January, 29.37 29.95 17.88 1().70
February, 19.14 15.41 11.23 10.55
March, 32.11 28.46 24.08 21.06
April, 45.48 42.43 40.15 34.14
Miiy, 56.95 53.07 56.85 49.03
Juiie, 62.63 59.93 62.39 58.34
July 71.65 67.95 72.73 68.86
August, 68.08 64,06 64.94 61.54
September, 64.02 59.49 58.55 55.16
October, 47.89 45.39 46.35 45.43
November, 41.08 38.58 31.58 28.75
December, 29.21 26.99 20.84 18.09
Me""r' f 10year8,48.73 16 years, 44.27 3 years, 42.24 1855,38.09
Min. 1855 —20.00 —25.00 -33.09 —29.05
Max. " 96.00 92.08 97.00 90.00
The year 1855 was distinguished by the extreme and prolonged cold of February
^*m
I V-
vM
m
30
THE PHTSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
TABLE,
Showing the average Temperature, Humidity, Wind, Rain and Snow at Toronto,
108 feet above Lake Ontario, or 341 feet above the sea, for a period of 22
yeara : .
{Obaervatory, Toronto, propbssob Kingston, dibeotob.)
TEMPERATURE.
Average Extremes in 22 years,
of 22 years.
Highest. Loteest.
Mean temperature of the year 440 .12 4GO 3fi 420 16
(m 184b.) (m 18.56.)
Warmest month Julv J"ly. 1854. Aug. 1860.
wh^en the mean temperature of the month ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^
CowTsVmVuth.'. '.■.■.■. '.'.'. *'.'.'. ■.■.■.*. ■*.'.'. ".".'.' February Jan. 1857. Feb. 1848.
when the mean temperature of the month
was 220.98 12o .75 26° .60
Difference between the warmest and coldest
months 430 .87
Hig.iest tetnpor'atu^e 90o .4 99o ii 820 .4
which occurred on July 22 Aug 24. Aug 19.
(1854.) (104U.;
Lowest temperature 120 .3 -260 5 t lo .9
which occurred on Jan. 25. J»" • ^l*- "^fg^o s
^^ »"•» y^ "^'- Jir.-!., (iTsi'i.)
HUMIDITY.
' M years.
Mean humidity of the year '^' '° I qS'
Month of greatest humidity .«ry. *■ iJec. i»ao.
when the mean humidity of th-
month was 83 89 81
Month of least humidity May. Feb 1843. Aprill, 1849.
when the mean of the month was 72 58 'o
CLOUDS.
Average Extremes in 9 yen
of 9 years.
Highest. Low
Mean cloudiness of the year 60 62, in 1 861 57, in '5: j6
( Dec. '58. j
Most cloudy month December. Dec. '60. \ Dec. 1 857.
( Feb. 'ol, ;
when the mean of the month was 75 ., .^-^or^ t ^^lon
Least cloudy month July and Aug. July, 1853. June, 1801.
when the mean of the month was 45 34 4o
Resultant di
Mean resulta
Mean ''eloeil
direction . ,
Total depth ii
No. ot days <
Greatest depi
when it arr
Rainy day.; w
when their
Greatest dept
which fell
Greatest dept
Total depth ii
No. of days c
Greatest dept
when it an
D.iys of snow
when their
WHERE 10 IN
Total depth ii
Number of d
Greatest dept
when it am
Days of aque
when their
THE PHTSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA.
31
WIND.
Result
of 14 years.
Resultant direction n. 60° w.
Mean resultant velocity in miles. . . 1 . 82
Mean ■■•elocity, without regard to
direction 6 . 78
RAIN.
Averajgfe
of 21 years.
Total depth in the year in inches. . 30 . 324
No. ot "lays on which rain fell. . . . 106
Greatest depth in one month fell in September.
when it amounted to 3 . 973
Rainy day^ were most frequent in . June
when their number was 12
Greatest depth of rain on one day. 2 . 138
which fell on
Greatest depth in one hour
SNOW.
Extremes in 14 years.
8.55inl860. 5. 10 in 1853
Extremes in 21 years,
< 43 . 555 » 5 21 . 505 )
} in 1843. S 1 in 1856. S
136 in 1861. 80 in 1841.
Sept. 1843.
9.760
June, 1857.
21
3.360
Oct. 6, 1849.
Sept. 1848.
3.115
May, 1841.
11
19 yrs* &1s yrs. Extremes fn 19 years & 22 years.
Total depth in the year 61 . 6
No. of days on which snow fell ... 57
Greatest depth in one month fell in February,
when it amounted to 18 . 0
Days of snow were most frequent in December.
when their number was 13.0
!99
in 1855
87 in 1859.
Feb. 1846.
46.1
I Deo. 1859.
I Jan. 1861.
23.0
0 ) (38.4 I
)5. i ) in 1851. i
33 in 1848.
Deo. 1851.
10.07
Feb. 1858.
8
RAIN AND SNOW, (COMBINED.)
■WHERE 10 INCHES OF SNOW ARK CONSIDEBKD AS EQUIVALENT TO 1 INCn OF KADT.
Average of
19 yrs. & 22 yrs.
Total depth in the year 36 . 488
Number of days in which rain or snow fell 160*
Greatest depth in one month fell in September.
when it amounted to 3 . 973
Days of aqueous precipitation most frequent in December.
when their number was 18
jiluicu^A**^'
^■■p
i y
32 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
CHAPTER 11.
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
Eighty years ago Upper Canada was a wilderness from
the Ottawa to the St. Chair. The first British settlements
were made after the year of peace 1783, but previousl}'- to
that date only a few insignificant and r" ^ooping Erench
colonies lay scattered on the banks of the St. Lawrence,
or grouped in remote isolation on the river Detroit. Lower
Canada at that time contained 113,000 people, although in
1670, or more than a century before, its population amount-
ed to nearly nine thousand souls. So languid and slug-
gish was the progress of Canada under Erench rule, that
a century scarcely sweUed the number of its inhabitants to
that of its commeicial capital, Montreal, at the present day.
Eighty years ago the province, which now claims 2,506,-
755 inhabitants, was just emerging from the gloom of its
forests. Over the whole of the most fertile and now most
densely })eopled western half, forest silence reigned, reigned
undisturbed and Si-preme.
The agricultural history of Lower Canada — where the
population is of French origin in the proportion of 76.29
per cent, to the whole number of inhabitants — is essentially
distinct from that of Upper Canada, whose people are al-
most exclusively of British descent. The Lower Canadian
Fvench are natives of the country, sons of the soil, honcpt,
light-hearted, and pre-eminently faithfid to the religion, tra-
ditions and usages of their forefathers. They have grown
to be almost a distinct peo])le, under the old feudal system,
and have always looked with characteristic reverence on
their seigneurs, their pastors and the notary of their village.
They have received no fresh blood by immigration for
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
33
generations, and have clung with remarkable tenacity to
the customs of their ancestors, repelling innovation and dis-
carding all change not especially sanctioned by their spirit-
ual advisers. Hence their agriculture is still to a consider-
able extent in a primitive condition, and requires a 'oiief
hiSbOrical notice separate from that of the people of Upper
Canada, who have been continually supplied with an in-
fusion of fresh blood from Europe, are eager to grasp at
every improvement which may better their condition, and
who live less with a careless indifference to the future, or a
happ}'' enjoyment of the present, than with continual efforts
to secure independence, often merging into a feverish anxiety
to become rich, and surround themselves with the luxuries
which the well-to-do iu the world are supposed to enjoy.
LOWER CANADA.
FRENCH CANADIAN FARMS.
There can be no doubt that the w/ctched mode of subdi-
viding land !^nd laying out farms which formerly prevailed
in Lower Canada, has been instrumental in retarding the
progress of husbandry in that p„rt of the province. Very
generally the farms in the old settled parts originally con-
sisted of narrow strips whose lengths and breadths were
in the ratio of ten to one ; three arpcnts wide by thirty
arpents in depth being the form of the long rectangle ex-
hibited b}^ a French Canadian farm when first surveyed.
This is the same as if the farms were 200 yards broad by
2,000 yards long, a form inconvenient for practical agri-
culture, involving a yearly increasing expenditure of time
and labor in its cultivation as the cleared portions become
more remote from the homestead, for which no advantages
of river or road frontage could compensate as the country
became cleared. But when the seigncurics were surveyed,
1,* '.
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84
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
Steamboats, railroads, and even macadamized roads were not
thouobt of, and people did not then indulge in the habit
of looking* far into the future, or those of later date care
to contemplate the condition to which they were drifting by
continuing the mode of subdividing the soil which their
fathers had inaugurated. With tlie increase of population,
and the love for the paternal roof, which distinguishes the
hahitans of Lower Canada, their farms have been again sub-
divided longitudinall}', sometimes into three parts, or one
arpcnt in breadth by thirty in depth, or in the proportion
of 66| yards broad to 2,000 long; and in the older seigneu-
ries the ratio of breadth to length is not unfrequently as
one is to sixty or 331 yards broad to 2,000 yards long.
These are some of the heirlooms of that old feudal system
which sat like a huge incubus on Lower Canada, and whose
depressing influence will long leave its mark on the energies
and character of its people.
FARM PRACTICE.
We do not require to go far back into the history of that
part of the province to find husbandry in all its branches in
a very primitive condition. Thirty years ago, rotation of
crops was wholly unknown, and no rules of art were prac-
ticed by the happy, light-hearted French Canadian, who with
rigid steps pursued the systems handed down to him by his
ancestors, and strictly a- lered to usages which generations
had sanctioned. In addition to the entire absence of rota-
ion of crops, the practice of carting manure on to the ico
of a neighboring river, in order that it might bo washed
away in the ;-(pring, was generally practiced, and even now
prevails to a considerable extent. Barns were removed
when the accumulations before the door impeded entrance
or exit, and the old primitive forms of plows, harrows and
all other farming implements and vehicles, were retained,
with a whoUisome horror of innovation in form or material.
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Lower Can
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iH III I
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
35
Nor need we travel far to find them still flourishing in all
their original imperfections and want of adaptation to the
end in view.
The narrowness of the French Canadian farms has led
to those seemingly interminable lines of neat whitewashed
cottages which border the main roads, or fringe the river
St. Lawrence, wearing the aspect of a continuous village.
A stranger, steaming down the noble river, sees with ad-
miration and delight an uninterrupted thread of white cot-
tages, fronting the water, with here and there the broad,
glittering tinned roof of the parish church, and in the back-
ground, the primeval forest; he gazes upon a beautiful
picture, suggesting pleasing associations, and thoughts of
rural contentment and prosperity, susceptible of increase
as elsewhere in the world. Sucli is the outward show, but
let him take a nearer view and examine in detail. He will
find little or no change save in increase of numbers, be-
tween what ho now surveys and what he might have seen
one generation or even two generations ago. Improvement
is progressing, but with snail-like progress, where ancient
habits and customs are preserved, and where families cling
to the soil on which they were born, and divide and sub-
divide their farms until they become narrow strips not
much wider than a modern highway, with the house front-
ing the river, and " the land all longitude."
The following table will show the progress made m
Lower Canada between 1827 and 1852, a period of twenty-
five years, and it will strikingly illustrate the fact that, ten
years since, real improvement was scarcely visible in aggre-
gate results, while in some instances a retrograde movement
seems plainly discernible. —
Population.
1827, 471,876
18.Vi, 8'J0,'itU
1827,
1852,
Wheat.
IliislielH.
2,ii;n,24o
3,07;!,i»4:}
Pens. Hye.
niislivls. DiibiicIr.
h;w,;<i8 2iT.r)i:j
1,41;),80G 32r.,422
Oafs.
UiiNliels.
2,a41/.20
8,977,380
Iiiilinn Corn.
IIiikIr'Ih.
;w:{,ir)0
401,284
narlcv.
Iliixhels.
3(53,117
494,766
Potatoes,
Bushels.
6,790,310
442,016
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THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORV OF CANADA.
Tons. Pounds. i«orses. uxen.
1827, 1,228,007 731,()96 140,432 145,012
1852, 755,579 1,189,018 184,6-:?0 112,128
Cows. Sheep. Swine. f/j^l.-'';;-
1827, 200,015 829,122 241,735 2,940,505
1852, 295,552* 647,465 257,794 3,005,167
• 183,972 calves or heifers not hicluded under the head 'cows.'
The diminution of oxen and sheep is remarkable ; the
small increase in the production of wheat is probably owing
to the "fly." In two articles only do we recognize any
advance commensurate with the increase of population in
twenty-five years, viz., in oats and flax. The area under
crop in 1827 was 1,002,198 acres, in 1852, 2,072,841 acres,
or more than double, yet while the area under crop had
doubled, the yield appears to have uniformly diminished, a
fact strongly shown in the subjoined comparative table of
average produce per acre in Upper and Lower Canada in
1852, according to the census of 1851 — 2 :
Upper Canada. Ijower Canada.
Bushels per acre. Bushels per acre.
Wlicat, lOU 9|1
Indian Corn, 24^'V 18^^
Rye, 1213 10
IV'Us, 14JJ 9fS
Oats, 20^J 20fJ
In 1851 — 2, each person in Lower Canada cultivated 4
acres, 0 roods, 8 poles ; in Upper Canada, 3 acres, 3 roods,
20 poles ; and while each family in either section of the
province had on an average 2 cows, in Upper Canada 53y
pounds of butter per cow was produced, and in Lower
Canada the quantit}'- was only 33 pounds. With respect to
cheese, the proportion was as 7i is to If, or about 4 to 1
in favor of Upper Canada.
While the stagnation, or rather retrograde movement, in
the farming industry of the liahitaits in Lower Canada was
taking place during the twentj'-five years under review, the
f 'W'^
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
37
most striking proofs were simultaneously afforded at the
different agricultural exhibitions at Quebec and Montreal, of
the fitness of the soil and climate of the country for agricul-
ture in its broadest acceptation. Scattered throughout
Lower Cana'da there are numbers of excellent farmers whose
practice can not be surpassed. In the results they have
produced, and the example they have shown, they have
proved beyond doubt what can be accomplished through-
out the length and breadth of settled Lower Canada, from
the Bay of Chaleurs to Montreal, and redeemed it from
those unfavorable impressions which a survey of the culti-
vated productions of its soil under the hands of the habit-
ans of the old school is adapted to create.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN LOWER CANADA.
In April, 1862, there were no less than seventy-two oi
these useful associations in the Lower Division of the pro-
vince. The progress which might fairly have been antici-
pated from such a large number of distinct bodies, organized
for the purpose of mutual assistance and encouragement,
has not been satisfactory. This state of things has arisen
in many instances from a most unusual and novel mode of
distributing the annual government grant. We can not do
better than transcribe the description of this singular disposal
of public money, given in a recent number of the Lower
Canada Agricultural Eeview, written by the editor on the
occasion of a visit to different parts of Lower Canada to col-
lect the best specimens of agricultural productions for trans-
mission to the International Exhibition at London, " In
many counties the societies have only distributed the funds
among the local farmers, and this has been the case year
after year, and we have often raised our voice against this
sort of family compact. Wc need not hero repeat our
arguments, for wherever we have suggested the employment
of the funds for any otlicr i)urposc, wc hav(> generally met
\M'^***^*^
38
THE AQEICULTUBAL HISTORY OF CAN. IDA.
with the entire approbation of the enlightened farmer ; and
we have often met conscientious and intelligent men whose
only aim is the advancement of agriculture. But these
men are often bound hand and foot in their actions, being
opposed by a majority who have no reason, and are only
guided by their own narrow notions and the following of
old customs; happily this majority is day by day losing
their strength and influence, and we predict a triumph, at
no distant day, of progressive and improved agriculture."
The Board of Agriculture for Lower Canada have taken
decisive steps during the present year, (1862,) to secure the
proper disbursements of the provincial grant, and to devote
liberal awards of public money to the promotion of agri-
cultural industry in all its important branches. The Lower
Canadian Provincial Shows have partaken more of the
character of an agricultural festival, hitherto, than of a meet-
ing for the purpose of securing the progress of the Science
and Art of Agriculture by fair and open competition and
peaceful rivalry. In this respect they have differed materi-
ally from the same annual expositions in Upper Canada,
where astonishing advances in the proper direction have
l)een made. The Board has now taken steps to establish an
Agricultural Museum, and to give assistance to county socie-
ties towards the importation of improved breeds of horses,
cattle and sheep. The Board is willing to advance to any
society funds for the purchase of stock, retaining one-third
of the annual government allowance for three successive
years to discharge the debt thus incurred. If this new
si)irit of enterprise continues, the progress of agriculture in
Lower Canada will be much more rapid than it has been of
late yearn, although it must be acknowledged that in the face
of many difficulties, national prejudices and peculiarities of
character, a very marked improvement has taken place in
many departments of husbandry, and in many parts of the
Lower Province, but nmch, very much remains to be done
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
39
The influence exercised by the Agricultural School at St.
Anne is already favorably felt, and as this establishment
appears likely to work a beneficial change in Lower Cana-
dian husbandry, a few details respecting it may be both ap-
propriate and acceptable.
THE AGRICULTURAL SCnOOL AT ST. ANNE.
At this establishment there are two departments, one de-
voted to theoretical training, the other to the cultivation,
upon the most approved principles, of a tract of land, to
serve as a model farm, and a nursery for stock. The bene-
ficial effect of the model farm is already felt in the neigh-
borhood, farmers having generally adopted the cultivation
of root crops, and sought with avidity for the improved
breeds of animals which have been reared by the College.
During the year 1860 there were eight pupils attending the
school. In 1861, there were only four ; but as this depart-
ment is yet in its infancy, there is good ground for the ex-
pectation that it will receive increased encouragement, as
the influence of the College becomes more widely felt.
The steps taken by the provincial government for the en-
couragement of agriculture in the Province at large, will
be described in the narrative of the progress made in Cana-
dian husbandry in Upper Canada, to which we now turn
with more encouraging results before us.
CEAPTER III.
UPPER CANADA.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN UPPER CANADA.
We have already stated that eighty years ago that part
of the province of Canada which is now most densely peo-
pled, was a forest wild. Upper Canada dates its existence
as a distinct Province previously to the Union from the
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THE AGRICULTURAL UISTORY OF CANADA.
year 1791. Before that period it formed part of the Pro-
vince of Quebec ; as soon, however, as it had acquired a
separate political status, it was divided into four districts,
the Eastern, Midland, Home and Western, each of which,
in course of time, established agricultural societies. In 1782,
or exactly eighty years ago, Upper Canada had barely 10,-
000 inhabitants. In 1824, the numbers had increased to
152,000, and in 1829 to 225,000 ; but it was not until the
year 1830 that the government of the province took any
decisive step to foster the agriculture of the country by
"An Act to encourage the establishment of Agricultural
Societies in the several Districts of the Province." As early
as the year 1825, agricultural societies, it is believed, ex-
isted in two or three districts, but no records have been
handed down to show the condition of husbandry at that
period.
The indirect assistance given by the Imperial Govern-
ment to Agriculture in Upper Canada, dates from a much
earlier period than the encouragement given to Agricultural
Societies by the Provincial Government ; for we find among
the donations of George III. to the U. E. Loyalists the old
English plow. It consisted of a small piece of iron fixed
to the colter, having the shape of the letter L, the shank of
which went through the wooden beam, the foot forming the
point, which was sharpened for use. One handle and a
plank split from a curved piece of timber, which did the
duty of a mold board, completed the rude implement. At
that time the traces and leading lines were made of the
bark of the elm or bass-wood, which was manufactured by
the early settlers into a strong rope. About the year 1808
the "hog-plow" was imported from the United States;
and in 1815 a plow with a cast iron share and mold-board
all in one piece, was one of the first implements requiring
more than ordinary degree of mechanical skill, which was
manufactured in the province. The seeds of improvement
^-^'
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THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
41
were then sown, and while in the address of the President
at the Frontenac Cattle Show in 1833, we observe atten-
tion called to the necessity for further improvement in the
plows common throughout the country, we witness, in 1855,
splendid fruit at the Paris Exhibition. In a notice of the
trial of plows at Trappcs, the Journal cV Ayriculture Practique
makes the following reference to a Canadian plow : " The
plowing tests were brought to a close by a trial of two
plows equally remarkable — to wit, the plow of Eanson &
Simms, of Suffolk, England, and that of Bingham, of Nor-
wich, Upper Canada. The first is of wood and iron, like
all the English plows, and the results which it produced
seemed most satisfactory, but it appeared to require a little
more draught than the Howard plow. Bingham's plow very
much resembles the English plow; it is very fine and light
in its build ; the handles are longer than ordinary, which
makes the plow much more easy to manage. The opinion
of the French laborers and workmen who were there, ap-
peared on the whole very favorable to this plow.
In 1828, when the whole population of Upper Canada
amounted to 185,500 inhabitants, the number of acres un-
der agricultural improvement was 570,000, or about 3-,^
for each individual ; in 1851 the average for each inhabitant
was very nearly four acres. The comparative progress of
Upper and Lower Canada, in bringing the forest-clad wil-
derness into cultivation, may be inferred from the following
table :
LOWSn CANADA.
UPPER CANADA.
Year.
No. acres cultivnted.
No. acres cultivated
1831,
2,()6r),<)13
818,432
1844,
2,802,317
2,166,101
1851,
3,C05,07G
3,702,783
IRGl,
4,678,900
0,051,019
Hence, in a period of twenty years. Lower Canada increased
her cultivated acres by 1.9 and Upper Canada by 4.5.
Before proceeding to describe in detail the progress of
Agriculture in Upper Canada, it will be advisable to glance
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42
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
at the efforts made by societies and the Government of the
Province to elevate the condition of husbandry in all its
departments, and to induce the people at large to join hand
in hand in the march of improvement.
GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE ENCOURAGEMENT.
The first public Act for the encouragement of Agricul-
ture in Canada, which came into operation in 1830, author-
ized the governor to pay one hundred pounds to any District
Agricultural Society which raised the sum of £50 by sub-
scription, for the purpose of importing valuable live stock,
grain, useful implements, &c.
Several acts were passed in subsequent years, being modi-
fications of that of 1830, all of them having for their object
the encouragement of Agricultural Societies and Agricul-
ture. In 1847 an additional step was taken, fraught with
very important consequences to the interests of husbandry
in Canada. An Act for the incorporation of the Provin-
cial Agricultural Associations came into operation; and
in 1850, Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower
Canada were established by law. In 1851, an Act was
passed to provide for the better organization of Agricul-
tural Societies, and finally, in 1852, the most important step
of all was taken, and " An Act to provide for the estab-
lishment of a Bureau of Agriculture, and to amend and con-
solidate the laws relating to Agriculture," came into
operation.
The District Societies, which, in 1830, drew their annual
pittance from Government, and represented the agricultural
interests of the country, have thus grown, in twenty-two
yeaKS, to a comprehensive and centralized organization, con-
sisting of, 1st, the Bureau ; 2d, the Boards of Agriculture
for Upper and Lower Canada ; 8d, the Agricultural Asso
ciations for Upper and Lower Canada ; 4th, County Socie-
ties; 5th, Township Societies.
<>V--Tn
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
43
In 1857, another change took place, being also a step in
advance; an Act was passed "to make better provision
for the encouragement of Agriculture, and also to provide
for the promotion of Mechanical Science." The head of
the Bureau of Agriculture received the title of ' Minister of
Agriculture,' with very extensive powers for obtaining and
distributing information respecting the condition of Hus-
bandry and the Progress of Arts and Manufactures in the
Province. By this act Boards of Arts and Manufactures
were created, and Horticultural Societies incorporated.
The Boards of Agriculture distribute the annual gov-
ernment grant to the County Societies, upon duly certified
statements from the Treasurers of the different Societies.
The progress of these excellent adjuncts to agricultural im-
provement is shown in the following table :
Year.
1852,
No. of So- Amount of Amount of
cieties. Subscription. Grant.
22 $13,531.00 $21,557.00
1853, 41 17,109.00 25,930.00
1854, 41 23,409.00 32,792.00
1855, 41 23,119.00 32,574.00
1856, 41 23,654.00 33,014.00
1857, 41 24,957.00 34,075.00
1858, 42 15,675.96 34,275.00
1859,* 61 24,221.00 23,836.00
With the means at the disposal of the County Societies, a
valuable impulse has no doubt been given to agriculture in
all its branches ; chiefly by encouraging the introduction of
a superior breed of animals and of improved implements.
Several societies have devoted a considerable portion of
their funds to the importation of improved breeds of cattle
and horses. The awarding of premiums for stock, imple-
* This year, in consequence of the financial condition of the country, the
legishitivo grant was limited to a certain amount for the entire Province, and a
uniform deduction was made from the amount which each society would have
been entitled to under the act. The sum due, according to the act, being
#47,950, of which only $32,836 was furnished by the Government.
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44
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
ments and farm productions generally, has encouraged pri-
vate enterprise and awakened a spirit of emulation which
has been most successful in promoting progress and im-
provement, and the rank which Upper Canada now oc-
cupies as an agricultural country is mainly due to the excel-
lent organization and energetic spirit which has always
distinguished the county societies since their first establish-
ment.*
THE PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.
As a necessary result of the successful working of the
county and township Agricultural Societies, v. growing de-
s're began to be felt, now nearly twenty year,j ago, for the
organization of a Provincial Society which would bring the
farmeis and manufacturers from all parts of the Province
together, and, by friendly rivalry and competition at an an-
nual exhibition, present at one view the best results of the
agricultural and mechanical industry of the country. Af-
ter several ineffectual attempts to obtain general and united
action, a meeting of delegates from county societies was
held at Hamilton in August, 1846, and an Association
formed, entitled tho "Provincial Agricultural Association
and Board of Agriculture for Canada West."
Tlie first Exhibition of tho Association was held at Toronto
In October, 1840. Tho amount of prizes offered in money
reached $1,112, besides books, making the total prize list to
have a money value of about $1,600. The result of the Ex-
hibition suniassed the most sanguine anticipations of its pro-
moters, a; A* excited the astonishment of many who were not
famii.ar with the progress already made by the County Socie-
tif^ at the display of stock, implements, grain, fruit, and veg-
etables. Thorough-bred Durham cattle were exhibited, and
♦ For an excellent butnma.-y of legislative enactments in favor of agricul-
ture in Cfinaila, see tlio first volume of tho Trausaotious of tho Board of Agri-
culture for Upper Canada.
lUJ .:.|,i
gH
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
45
eagerly bought up at the close of the show. lu the ad-
dress delivered at the Hist meeting of the Association, we
find the following paragraph, which illustrates the condition
of husbandry in relation to stock which prevailed through-
out the province : " The rough condition of our farmers,
with various concurring circumstances, have in times past
precluded any due attention to the important department of
live stock. We find every where a mongrel mixture of
Devons, Ilerefords, Lancashires, and Normans, frequently,
indeed, producing good milkers, and useful cattle for the
yoke, but entirely devoid of any established qualities upon
which the breeder can rely, or feel any confidence that
"like will beget like." We muot admit, however, that
some improvement has taken place, and that the well-
defined breeds of England are beginning to be sought after
with some care."
The Provincial Association commenced its operations
without any well-established means of support, trusting to
members' fees and contributions from county societies.
Its first exhibition was so far successful that a balance of
$408.25 remained in the treasurer's hands after all expenses
were paid. In 1847 the association was incorporated by
act of Parliament, under the title of "The Agricultural
Association of Upper Canada." Since that time it has in-
creased ill influence and usefulness year by year, as the fol-
lowing brief synopsis of the results of the diflerent exhi-
bitions held tinder its auspices amply proves :
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT
Showing tho amount of competition at all tho Exhibitions bold by tho Asso*
oiation, between 1846 and 18G0, inclusive:
BXHIOITIONI.
Amniinl of
PrizeR offertid.
Toronto, 1840 £400 0 0.
Hamilton, 1847, 750 0 0.
Col.ourg, 1848 775 0 0.
Ki^^^st(m, 1849, 1.400 0 0.
Tntnl No.
Entries.
1,1.50
1,000 GOO
1,.500 .575
1,429 700
Amount of
Prizes Awarded.
.£275 0 0
Niugiirn, 1850, l,'27G 11 9 1,038 950
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
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THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
EXHIBITIONS.
Total No.
Entries.
Amount of
Prizes offered
Brockville, 1851,.,.. £1,2.54 9 3 1,466
Toronto, 1852, 1,470 9 9 3,048 1,228
Hamilton, 1853, 1,002 10 9 2,820 1,323
London, 18.")4, 1,794 0 6 2,933.
Coljourg, 1855, 2,304 1 6 3,077.
Kin-jston, 1856, 2.309 12 6 3,791 1,()99
Brantfoni, 1 857, ..... 2,5 1 7 17 0 4,337 .... " '
5,572..
Amount of
Prizes Awarded.
. £805 18 9
6 3
1,356 17 6
8 6
17 6
Toronto, 1858 2,675 2 6.,
2.010 10 0
2,303 15 0
Kingston, 1859, 2,028 5 0 4,830 2,010 15 0
Hamilton, 1860, 3,753 17 6 7,532 3,235 0 0
The following table exhibits, in a condensed form, the
general results of two exhibitions, at an interval of 11
years. The remarkable change, both in number and kind
of stock, and implements exhibited, shows how rapid the
progress of improvement lias been during that period.
COMPAHIBON BETWEEN THE ENTRIES AT THE PROVINCIAL EXHIBITION OF
1849 AND 1860.
Classes.
No. of Entries, No. of Entries,
1S19. 1860.
Blood Horses 10 20.
Atrrioultural Horses, 97 128.
Amount
Awarded.
$305 00
.,418 00
lloii.l or Cnrriag.* Horses, 1 88 422 00
Heavy Draught Horses., 49...... 330 00
Horses of all Classes, 52 100 00
Diiriiam Cattle, 54 143 032 00
Devon Cattle, 10 172 003 00
Hereford Cattle
19 329 00
Ayrshiro Cattle, 12 63 558 00
(lalloway Cattle, 56 532 00
Bulls of any i}reed, 21 80 00
(Jrado Cattle 51 73 199 00
Fat and Working Cattle, 20 38 227 00
Leieester Sheep, 79 176 162 00
CoLswold Sheep, ^ 1 78 00
Cheviot Sheep 41 1.59 00
Oth.r Long Wooled Sheep, 121 162 00
Southdown Sheep 16 ,...118 162 00
iMerinoand Saxon Sheep, 11 52 202 00
Rams of all Breeds, 40 20 00
FatSheep, 5 23 54 10
45 82 00
19 80 00
16 64 00
^59 28 105 00
45 95 00
23 06 00
11 20 00
Yorkshire Pigs,.
Larire Herksliire Pigs,
Other h.rge Breeds,
SiilFolk l^gM
Improved Herkshiro Pigs,.
Other Small Breeds,
Pigs idl Breeds,
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF OANADA.
47
Classbs.
(TABLB C0NTIND2D.)
No. of Entries,
1&19.
Poultry, 22 .
Foreign Stock,
Grains, Si'eds, «fcc.,.
Roots, &c.,
Fruit, J. 224 .
Gjirdun Vegetables,.
Plants and Flowers,.,
Dairy Products, ' . 63,
No. of Entries, Amount
1860. Awarded.
....297 191 UO
.... 1 15 00
....764 822 00
...546 254 00
,...690 270 50
,...644 269 50
,...142 228 50
...201 210 00
...226 771 00
...153 204 50
... 6 15 00
Agricultural Implements, (Power,).. . J ,^,
Agric'uituial Implements, (Hand,). . . | ,
Artificial Cattle Food, Manures, &o.,
Foreign Agricultural Implements, 39 2 10 00
Arts Department, (in Medals,) , 160 00
Arcliitectural uud Miscellaneous use-
ful Arts, 70 159 00
Cabinet Ware and other Wood Ma»u-
faetures, 18 120 236 00
♦Carriages, Sleighs, &o., 40 47 88 00
Furs and Wearing Apparel, 28 25 00
Fine Arte, 78 262 291 00
~ " 194 182 00
4 6 00
165 535 227 00
140 377 00
89 87 00
24 54 00
26 95 00
00
00
00
00
Groceries, Provisions, &o,
Indian Work, 3
Ladies' Department,
Machinery, Castings, «!fcc., ) gg
Metal Work, Plain and Ornamental,. . J
Miscellaneous,
Musical Instruments,
Natural History, 50 274
Paper, Printing, Bookbinding, (Sec, 7 61 01
rottery, 3.
*>Saddlery, Harness. Leather, «feo.,
*Shoe and Ho(jt Work and Leather, ...
Woolen, Flax, and Cotton Goods, 99 .
Foreign Mairjlactures,
Amateur Jiands
Totals, 1,429
NoTBi.— Till' Medals and copies of Transactions of the Board are included in the above
statement; tlie #old Medils being valued at 810 each, the silver Medals at $\0 (-iich ;
and lilt' IranHaclloiis at $1 per volume. Where tlie amount of prizes awarded cxcecda
lliat otfered, the excess is caused by extra prizes, or, in the case ol' live stocic, by the aUdl-
tluiini amount fur imported animals.
' III 1S49 included under the head of Carriages and Sleighs, and Leather manufacture*
and Furs.
Some permanent buildings are now erected at Toronto,
Hamilton, London, and Kingston, .'espectively, for the ex-
press purposes of holding annual exhibitions. In 1862,
the annual meeting was hold at Toronto, and permanent
. 53 137
. 72 148
. 67 99 00
.159 272 00
. 21
. 3 325 GO
r,532 $12,940 00
mt
I : 1
I
ti
ill;
m^^
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48
THE AGRICCLnjtiAu HISTORY OJ? CANADA.
THE
provision made for stabling 198 horses and 435 head of cat-
tle. The amount of prizes offered exceeded 1,600 dollars.
Such is the progress which has been made during fifteen
years, in bringing together the different industries of Up-
per Canada, and teaching her people those lessons which
can only be learned by friendly competition in an arena
open to all, witiiout distinction, prejudice, or favor. The
cause of this rapid improvement is no doubt in great part
due to the immigration of scientific agriculturists, as well
as practical farmers, who have learned and studied hus-
bandry in all its branches in the best districts of Engl? id
and Scotland. Any improvement which takes place, either in
stock, implements, or farming practice, either in Europe or
the United States, is immediately imported, and, if satisfac-
tory, adopted in Upper Canada. By means of the differ-
ent agricultural, societies, all needful information respecting
the results attained are speedily made known, and there is
now no lack of enterprising and energetic men who gladly
embrace every opportunity of improving the farming prac-
tice. The financial condition of the Association and the
Board of Agriculture, afford incontestible proof of the
deep root which these institutions have taken in Canada.
It will be remembered that in 1846 they commenced their
operations without funds, relying solely on subscriptions.
In 1859, thij large sum of $110,908.78 passed through the
hands of the treasurer. Out ot the surplus funds a hand-
some and commodious brick building has been erected in
Toronto for the purposes of the Board, amply provided with
space for museum, library, reading-room, large luill for pub-
lic meetings, and a capacious seed-store.
THE FRUIT-OROWEHS' ASSOCIATION FOR CTPPER CANADA.
Intimately connected with agriculture, in the common ac-
ceptation of the term, fruit-growing is now m accepted de-
partment of husbrmdry. Canada imports an immenfje quan-
tity of fruit i
elusive, the v:
fruit from the
Fruit— Green,
" Dried, . .
Total,
The fruit c
as being wort
reach $500,00
Growers' Ass
First— Thi
relative merit
the determinj
ble for cultiv
the list of frn
Second. — T
require, of tu
of such new
decmea wort
names of an;
of cultivatioi
sufficiently h
T/iu'd.--'V]
and improv
testing of al
merits or d(
trials.
Fourth.-—'
the identifie
eat localitici
the ignoran(
as new varn
F^th"^
t\
ij
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 49
titj of fruit from the UnHed States. In 1859-1861, in-
clusive, the value of the importation of green and dried
fruit from the United States amounted to the following •
1859. 1800. 1861.
Fruit— Green, 216,592 241,912 245,259
" Dried, 35,414 43,192 64,932
Total, $252,006 $285,104 $310,191
The fruit crop of the state of New York is estimated
as being wortii annually $6,000,000 ; that of Canada may
reach $500,000. The objects contemplated by the Fruit-
Growers' Association for Upper Canada :
Pirst. — The discussion by members of the society of the
relative merits of the different kinds and varieties of fruit,
the determination and selection of the best varieties suita-
ble for cultivation in Canada West, ai d the publication of
the list of fruits so selected and recommended.
Second. — The revision from time to time, as occasion may
require, of tue catalogue of fruits, and the addition thereto
of such new varieties as may after a sufficient t.ial bo
decmea worthy of j^eneral cultivation, and striking out the
names of any that may on further trial be found unworthy
of cultivation, either .Tom being deficient in flavor or not
sufficiently hardy to idtand the severity of our climate.
TInrd. — The promotion by the society of the cultivation
and improvement of 7)citive and indigenous fruits, the
testing of all new varieties of fruit, the discussion of their
merits or defects, and making known the result of such
trials.
Fourth. — The determination of the names of fruits ; and
tlie identification of fruits having different nances in differ-
ent localiaos, or which, having received new names through
the ignorance or fraud of cultivators, have uecu distributed
as new varieties.
Z'Yif/? - -The discussion of all questions relative to fruit
■M'
m
%.
50
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
culture, and disseminating information respecting the same,
such as the most proper or most advantageous modes of
cultivation ; the soils and exposures most suitable for the
different kinds of fruit ; the manures most beneficial, and
the best modes of applying the same ; the diseases to which
the various fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants are liable,
with the remedies for such diseases ; the insects injurious
to the different kinds of fruit, and the best means of pre-
venting or restraining their ravages; the best modes of
ripening, gathering, and preserving fruits ; and any other
subject bearing upon fruit culture.
This association was reorganized in 1861, the Constitu-
tion and B^^-Laws having been framed and adopted in Jan-
uary, 1862. It already numbers most of the fi-uit-growers
in the province among its members, and it will no doubt
ere long take an important position.
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES.
These are established in most of the chief towns : To-
ronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Peterborough, St. Catharines,
Niagara, Cobourg, and Paris. In the bill now before Par-
liament it is proposed that " every horticultural society in
any city, town or incorporated village, incorporated under
this act, or which may have been incorporated under any
other act of the Provincial Legislature, shall be entitled to
a public grant equal to the amount subscribed by the mem-
bers of such society, and certified by their treasurer to have
been paid into his hands in the manner provided b}^ the
sections of the act relating to Agricultural Societies, provi-
ded that the whole amount granted to any such society shall
not exceed one hundred pounds in any year."
The progress of horticulture in Canada may be inferred
from what has taken place at and near Toronto since 1836.
In that 3'car, with a poj)ulation of about 6,000, there were
two small green-houses in the town, where common plants
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only were c
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the growth
Orchard hoi
delightful I
Some of the
a very subs
feet of pipcj
grounds of ;
most valuab
horticulturis
ever tends t(
Five acres a^
ration, so th
city of Toroi
In Hamiltoi
was 393 in J
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of papers ei
formation br
ultimate est£
Garden.
Among ot
culture in U]
the Univcrsil
nection with
4
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
51
only were cultivated. In 1862, there exist many thousand
square feet of glass-roofed structures, most of them built
upon the most approved modern principles, and adapted to
the growth of foreign grapes, green-house iind exotic plants.
Orchard houses are already numerous, and a taste for the
delightful pursuit of horticulture is rnpidly spreading.
Some of the private green and hothous.; pre constructed on
a very substantial and extensive scale ; several thousand
feet of pipes for the supply of hot water being used. The
grounds of the horticultural society occupy five acres, in a
most valuable part of the city, and are the gift of a zealous
horticulturist and warm and generous supporter of what-
ever tends to improve and elevate his fellow-countrymen.
Five acres adjoining have been purchased from the corpo-
ration, so that there is now in the midst, as it were, of the
city of Toronto, a horticultural garden containing ten acres.
In Hamilton the number of entries at the annual shows
was 393 in 1851 ; in 1859 it rose to 1,418, or nearly four
times as many.
THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA.
Organized in 1860, and having for its object the introduc-
tion and distribution of new plants and seeds adapted to
the wants of the country ; experiments on the indigenous
and domestic plants of Canada ; the encouragement of ar-
boriculture, forest-conservation, and the culture of fibre dye,
oil, food and medicinal plants, together with the pubUcation
of papers embodying the results arrived at, and the in-
formation brought together by the above means, with the
ultimate establishment of a Botanical and Experimental
Garden.
CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE.
Among other important adjuncts to the progress of agri-
culture in U})per Canada, there is a Chair of Agriculture in
the University of Toronto, and a Veterinary School in con-
nection with Board of Agriculture,
^ ^..JkM.UM^'^'
52
THS AORICULTURAL. HISTOBT OF CANADA.
CHAPTER ly.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS.
WHEAT.
Among- farm products, wheat takes the first rank in the
husbandry of Upper Canada. Formerly it occupied an
equally prominent position in Lower Canada, but for many
years this cereal has not been successfully cultivated in the
eastern part of the province, in consequence of the Hessian-
fly, wheat midge, and an exhausting system of culture ; it
is now, however, slowly regaining its position in Lower
Canada.
The following table shows the amount of wheat produced
in Lower and Upper Canada in different years :
Lower Canada.
Year. Bushels of Wlieat.
1827, 2,931.240
1831 3,404,756
1844,.., 942,835
1861, 3,045,600
1861
Uppkr Canada.
Yenr. Bushels of Wheat.
1842, 3,221,991
1848, 7,558,773
1851, 12,674,503
1861 24,620,425
Long before Upper Canada was invaded by the whites,
Lower Canada was a wheat exporting country ; but the re-
turns show a gradual falling off from about the year 1819.
In 1790 the valley of the Eichelieu produced 40 bushels to
tiie acre
EXPORTS OP BUEADSTUFFS PROM THE PORT OP QUEBKC, PROM 1793 TO 1802,
AND PROM 1810 TO 1822, INCLUSIVK.*
VcRr. Wlient. Flour— (bbli.)
179:t, 487,000 10,900
1794, 414,000 13,700
1795, 395,000 18,000
1796, 3,100 4,300
1797, ?1,000 14.000
1798 92,000 9,500
1799, 129,000 14,400
♦ It is probable that a ooiisidorable portion of tlie exports from Quebec
between 181G and 1822 canio from Upper Canada.
STATEMENT OP
fM
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
53
Year.
1800,
1801,
1802,
* *
1816,.".'.".'."."
1817, 1818,.
1819,
1820,
1821,
1822
Wheat. Flour— (bbli.)
217,000 20,000
473.000 38,000
1,010,033 ..28,300
i|c !|e 9|i * # *
.............. 1,137
546,500 69,100
37,800 12,100
320.000 45,000
318,400 22,600
145,000 47,700
An inspection of the foregoing table will show that the
cnltivation of wheat in Lower Canada has long since been
of a precarious character ; two instances are known, namely,
in 1796 and 1819, when the exports became merely nominal,
while in 1802, before Upper Canada could contribute any
proportion of exports, the amount of wheat and flour sent
from Quebec reached 1,010,033 bushels, and 28,300 barrels
respectively. Even when Upper and Lower Canada are
taken together in relation to the export of wheat, the pro-
gress is shown to be far from uniform.
STATEMENT OP THE NET EXPORTS OP WHEAT, FLOUR, AND BRAN, FROM THE
PROVINCE.
Year.
1853,. . .
1854,...
1855,...,
1856,...,
1857,...,
1858,.
Qnnntify
Value. Rate per Bushel. Bushels.
, . .$7,322,324 $1 15 6,267,628
.. 6,742,200 1 31 5,146,795
, .. 11,750,020 1 85 6,351,362
, . . 10,476,327 1 39 7,.536,925
, . . 3.690,428 1 06 3,841,538
2,763,509 0 97 2.848,977
1859, 1,097,742 1 06 1,03.5,606
I860, 6,367,061 1 13 5,637,222
1861, 9,299,351 1 08 8,613,195
WHKAT CULTURE.
Until recently, with few exceptions, wheat has been cul-
tivated without regard to rotation of crops, both in Upper
and Lower Canada. Several reasons have led to this very
improvident system of farming practice, independently of
a general want of knowledge regarding the first principles
of husbandry. For a long time wheat was the only pro
H
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54
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
duct of the farm upon which reliance could be placed as a
mean of obtaining ready money. Wheat has always been a
cash article; other farm products have often sought a mar-
ket in vain, and were consequently given by the farmer in
barter or exchange for many of the necessaries he required.
Since the construction of railways, things have changed; a
market has been found for almost every production of the
farm, and with a more general spread of agricultural know-
ledge, a better farming practice has been established, and
the value of rotation of crops acknowledged. Both in
Upper and Lower Canada, vast areas of most fertile land
have been rendered nbsolutely unproductive by continual
wheat cropping. Portions of the valley of the Richelieu in
Lower Canada and of '■ -le Thames in Upper Canada afford
striking proofs of this deterioration in the fruitfulness of
the soil. Forty bushels to the acre was by no means an
uncommon yield when the land was first cleared of its for-
est, as it now is in the valley of the Saugeen and Maitland.
Rest for a few years, or deep plowing, restores the soil
nearly to it3 original fertility, and whore the last artifice is
adopted, even on v/hat are callea worn-out farms, it is
found that fair and sometimes excellent crops can be ob-
tained. This is particularl}'' the case in Lower Canada, where
for centuries the soil has been merely skimmed, and the
cultivation of wheat abandoned on account of the wretched
yield obtained. By deep plowing these " worn-out lands"
have been restored, and there is no doubt that the same
artifice, if thoroughly carried out, would bring many a
wheat field of by -gone celebrity back to its original produo*
tiveness, if a judicious rotation of crops were adopted.
TIIK DESTROYERS OF WHEAT IN CANADA.
Insects here as elsewhere on this continent have been the
great enemies of the wheat crops, before which the best
practice has failed. The wheat midge, the Ilessian-fly, and
i
!
that destri]
ruined the
one instant
years. A j
on a precec
effect of ii
Avheat rose 1
and 1859 t(
portation o]
great part t
given in su
The first
Lewder Canr
vast numbe
in 1836, it c
the vallev >
pcared in tl
ously to this
bad fallen
IS-i-l. In 1
wheat-grow:
two to six I
Its progress
1851 and
caused a los
exceeding f
Canada, its i
portion. Ii
very dostru(
in the Unite
ive in the ]
grossed as
lake shore w
this year we
Thames in 1
peninsula its
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
55
that destructive fungus, "rust," have in many instances
ruined the productive capabilities of whole counties, and in
one instance the greater part of a province, for a term of
years. A glance at the tables of annual exportation, given
on a preceding page, will show how terrible has been the
effect of insect destroyers. In 1856, the exportation of
wheat rose to 9,391,531 bushels ; in 1857 it fell to 6,482,199,
and 1859 to 4,032,627 bushels, or less than one half the ex-
portation of 1856. This diminution must be attributed in
great part to the wheat midge, of which a short account is
given in subsequent paragraphs.
The first recorded appearance of the wheat midge in
Lower Canada took place in 1829, In 1834 it appeared in
vast numbcisnear Montreal, and in the following year, and
in 1836, it destroyed a great quanaty of the wheat crops in
the valley of the St. Lawrence. In the year 1849 it ap-
peared in the eastern counties of Upper Canada, but previ-
ously to this date the production of wheat in Lower Canada
had fallen from 3,404,756 bushels in 1831 to 942,835 in
1844. In 1851 the average production of some of the best
wheat-growing counties of Upper Canada fell from twenty-
two to six bushels to the acre in consequence of this pest.
Its progress westward in Upper Canada during the years
1851 and 1852 was very marked. In 1854 this insect
caused a loss in the wheat crop of the state of New York
exceeding fifteen million dollars, and in some counties in
Canada, its destructive influence was felt in the same pro-
portion. In the region of the Lower St. Lawrence it was
very destructive in 1855, although not generally prevalent
in the United States, although very abundant and destruct-
ive in the previous year. In 1856 this insect had pro-
gressed as lar westward as the Niagara counties, and on the
lake shore west of Toronto. Its ravages in Canada during
this year were estimated at $2,500,000. It appeared on the
Thames in 1856, and throughout a large part of the western
peninsula its depredations were felt.
^t'
M:
U'i.
m\
'^
56
THE AGRICULTURAL HlriTOUY' JF CANADA.
There are several species of the whea,t-iniclge, but the
differences are so small as not reudily to strike the eye of
the unpracticed or unscientific observer. The most com-
mon species is a small orange-colored fly with delicate, trans-
parent, viridescent wings, and long, slender legs. The
length of this insect is about the tenth of an inch, the
breadth of its expanded wings slightly exceeds the tenth of
an inch. It appears in Canada during the latter part of
June, and remains until the middle of August. The eggs
are deposited in the germ of the still undeveloped grain,
through its chaff or sheath. The number of eggs rarely ex-
ceeds ten, but as several insects lay their eggs in the same
floret, from ten to forty larvso have been counted in one
floret. The young maggots feed upon the juices of the
grain, and dry it up. It appears to be most destructive
during dry summers, like other insect pests.
In 1859 this midge was destructive in the county of Wel-
land, but in other parts of Canada it appears to have ex-
hausted itself The remedy universally adopted or recom-
mended is to sow early kinds of winter wheat very early in
the season, and the Fife spring wheat either very early or
not until after the 20th of Mry.
THE HESSIAN FLY.
Between the years 1805 and 1816, the Hessian-fly was
very destructive in some parts of Lower Canada. In 1819
the importations of wheat fell to 37,800 bushels, having in
1802 exceeded one million bushels. This diminution is in
great part attributed to the IIessian-fl3^ In 1880 it began
to disappear in Lower Canada, and in 1836 it was no longer
to be found. In 1816 it appeared in Upper Canada, hav-
ing been very destructive during the previous year in
western New York, Ohio, Michigan, n.nd the western states
generally. In 1847 it was common about Toronto, and
strange lo say, although great fears were entertained for the
safety of th
count of tl
previous y(
best ever gi
which govc
ive to vegci
Other wl
less with th(
species of tl
are known
undergrouD
generally,
structive al
as they app
Rust is j
the wheat c
unexpected
whirlwind (
of thousanc
night. In
fungus was
and in diffe
ing with pi
of rust. I
surest mod(
getable org
ing in the r
tate when
" rust." T
enough to
such a Stat
healthy coi
Averages
Bent by the
dents of tht
THE AGRICCLTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
57
safety of the harvest of 1^ ±8 in the United States on ac«
count of the remarkable prevalence of the insect in the
previous year, the crop of 1848 proved to be one of the
best ever grown, so remarkable and mysterious are the laws
which govern the increase and decrease of insects destruct-
ive to vegetation.
Other wheat insect depredators are comparatively harm-
less with the exception of the wire-worm. Upwards of sixty
species of the larvoo of beetles belonging to the genus Elater
are known to entomologists. They feed upon the roots and
underground stems of wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses
generally. Sometimes the wire-worm is found in such de-
structive abundance that it cuts off the young crops as fast
as they appear two or three inches above the surface.
Rust is justly considered one of the greatest enemies to
the wheat crops of this continent. Its attacks are often so
unexpected and universal that it has been likened to a
whirlwind of blight, which sweeps over thousands and tens
of thousands of square miles in the short space of a single
night. In 1837, 1840 to 1846, 1849, 1850 and 1855, this
fungus was very destnictive in many states of the Union
and in different parts of Canada. Draining, and early sow-
ing with properly prepared seed, are the best preventives
of rust. As, in most other cases, good husbandry is the
sui'cst mode of withstanding the attacks of this minute ve-
getable organism, whose seeds or sporules are always float-
ing in the air during the ouiuuior season and instantly vege-
tate when those climatic conditions occur favorable to
" rust." The only plan is to have the wheat plant strong
enough to bear its attack when it comes, and the soil in
such a state that it will not foster its growth by an un-
healthy condition of the plant.
Averages per Acre. — According to returns to circulars
sent by the Bureau of Agriculture in 1860 to the Presi-
dents of the different Agricultural Societies in the Province,
j^iMMuai^''
58
THE AGBICOXTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
the ibllowing data witli reference to the yield of wheat haa
been collected:
PRODUCE PER ACRE IN UPPER CANADA.
Winter wheat. Spring Wheat,
No of bushels per acre. No. of bushels per acre
County of Carlton 28| 22J
" " N humberland , . . .27^ 19
" " Siincoe 26| 2?,^
" "York 27 20
" " Bruce 25 20
" "Leeds 25 16|
" " Peel 241 isl
" " Ontaiio 22| 23|
The total average for the Province is 21 bushels of win-
ter wheat to the acre, and 18 1 bushels of spring wheat. The
number of acres of winter wheat now cultivated in Upper
Canada is only about one-third of the whole cropped witn
wheat. Five years ago there was not one acre of spring
wheat for every ten of winter wheat. This change has
been brought about by the ravages of the wheat midge.
No doubt when draining becomes more generally adopted,
farmei-s will return to the cultivation of winter wheat.
In Lower Canada the county of Laval returned 18
bushels to the acre of winter wheat, Ottawa 15, Pontiac 20
and 15 bushels. Of spring wheat in Terrebonne the av-
erage is stated to be 20, Megantic 18, Grantham 17, Leeds
lOi. The total average of spring wheat for Lower Canada
being 13 bushels to the acre. The midge was destructive
in several counties in Lower Canada in 1859, destroying
from 25 to 50 per cent, of the crop.
The wheat crop of 1858 was very deficient; it averaged
for winter wheat not more than 12 bushels to the acre, or
about 331 per cent, less than the general yield of 18 bushels
to the acre. The yield of spring wheat in 1858 was 13^
or 15 per cent, below the general annual average. The
wheat midge was found to prevail in every county on the
lake shores of Upper Canada. Bust was this year about aa
1
destructi\
not to be
1858 was
crop wa.s
below.
In 185;
eial annu
without fi
from Cai
that the a\
vast bodi
beneficial
the tcrrib
rust, than
has been
of these d
for a remc
there is n(
varieties o
destroj^ers
and 1859,
try; they
ers to the
ing princi
rotation oi
The tot
bushels jDC
bushels.
221 bushe
The avc
bushels tc
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OP CANADA.
69
destructive as the midge, altliougli the Fife wheat was stated
not to be injured by rust. Generally the wheat crop of
1858 was about 25 per cent, below the average. The pea
crop was beyond the average, the potato crop 25 per cent,
below.
In 1857 the wheat crop was 31 per cent, below the gcn-
eial annual average. These deficient crops \vill explain
without further comment the small exportations of wheat
from Canada during 1858 and 1859 ; they will also show
that the western peninsula, although nearly surrounded by
vast bodies of fresh water which exercise a marked and
beneficial influence upon its climate, is scarcely less liable to
the terrible visitations of the midge, the Hessian fly and
rust, than those parts of the United States, where wheat
has been partially abandoned as a farm crop in consequence
of these destroyers. In good husbandry only can wo hope
for a remedy against the attacks of insects and of rust, but
there is no doubt that by draining, the selection of early
varieties of wheat, and sowing very early or late, the wheat
destroyers can be overcome. The lessons taught in 1858
and 1859, have been productive of great good to the coun-
try ; they have opened the eyes of a great number of farm-
ers to the necessity of due attention to the first and lead-
ing principles of good husbandry, namely, draining and
rotation of crops.
OATS.
The total average of oats in Upper Canada was 34i
bushels per acre in 1859 ; in 1858 the average was only 32
bushels. In Lower Canada the returns show an average of
22 i bushels per acre.
BARLEY.
The average return of this grain in Upper Canada is 27^
bushels to the acre; in Lower Canada it is 23 bushels
liii'i, ■- W
nm:i-
I
j^i)jkMi^'^^^**^'-
¥ •
- ii
^i
!■
|n:
*
80
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
The growth of barley is very much on the increase in
Lower Canada. V/inter barley is coming into extensive
use ; as much as 60 bushels to the acre have been produced
in the county of Maitland.
KYE.
The average return in Upper Canada is 18 bushels to the
acre ; in Lower Canada 13 bushels.
INDIAN CORN,
Thirty bushels to the acre is the average for Upper Can-
ada in 1859. In Lower Canada, Indian corn, peas, and buck-
wheat seem to be very little cultivated, and with indifferent
success.
PKAS.
The average for Upper Canada is 23^ bushels per acre;
the curculio, which for many years had been very destruc-
tive in the Province previous to 1858, appears to have
disappeared in 1859, affording another instance of the vi-
cissitudes of insect life.
POTATOES.
In Upper Canada the average was 125 bushels to the acre
in 1858; in 1859 it rose to 176 bushels. In Lower Canada
the average was 175 bushels in 1859, about 50 per cent,
greater than in 1858.
HAY.
Hay is a better crop in Lower than in Upper Canada,
the averages for the eastern half of the Province beint*
about 2 tons to the acre, whereas in the western division it
is not more than 1} tons.
TURNIPS.
The cultivation of this valuable vegetable is increasing
in Canada, and some magnificent crops are produced in
both sections of the Province.
A sketcl
be incomp]
in the rear
yearly invi
tiers. In 1
and the up
trated by
grants of I
ada, the v
peninsula <
St. Lawren
governmen
to actual set
has been d^
are selectee
On the (
Upper Can
1859; iuli
her of acre
2,016; in 1
alone 607 s
year. Upc
were raised
12,723 :
12,711
904
2G8
580
22,G20
ll,r)02
312
570
5,192
544 I
209 i
95
4,4G7 1
1,877
f
THE AORICULTUKAL HISTORY OF CANADA.
61
INVASION OF THE WILDERNESS.
A sketch of the progress of agriculture in Canada would
be incomplete if the manner in which the vast wilderness
in the rear of the thickly settled parts of the country is
yearly invaded by thousands of hardy and industrious set-
tlers. In Upper Canada the country between Lake Iluron
and the upper waters of the Ottawa River has been pene-
trated by colonization roads, on the line of which free
grants of land are made to actual settlers. In Lower Can-
ada, the valley of Lake St. John and the St. Maurice, the
peninsula of Gasp6, and the shores of the estuary of the
St. Lawrence below Quebec, are intersected by roads cut by
government through the wilderness, and free grants made
to actual settlers, as in Upper Canada. In illustration of what
has been done on these colonization roads, two exam23les
are selected, one from each division of the Province,
On the Ottawa and the Opcongo colonization road in
Upper Canada, 1,090 acres of free grants were allotted in
1859 ; in 1860 the area amounted to 1,468 acros. The num-
ber of acres cleared up to the 81st of December, 1859, was
2,016; in 1860 it reached 2,623, showing that on one road
alone 607 acres of forest fell before the settler's ax in one
year. Upon 1,468 acres actually cropped in 1860, there
were raised:
12,723 bushels of wheat, at f 1.00 a bushel, $12,723.00
12,711 " " oats, " 50...." C,35.5..')0
904 " " barley, " 60 " 542.40
208 " " Iiidiauconi, 1.00 " 268.00
580 '< " peas, " 1.00 " 580.00
22.G20 " " potatoes. " 40 " 9,048.00
11,502 " " tuni-ps, " 10 " 1,150.20
312 tons of. . , hay, " 14.00 oor ton, 4,368.00
570 " "...straw, " 3.00 " " 1,710.00
5,192 lbs. "... sugar, " 12 "lb 614.64
544 Kais. "... molasses, " 1.00 " gal., 544.00
209 bb!s. "... pork, " 16.00 " bbl., 3,344.00
95 " "... potash, " 20.00 " " 1 ,900.00
4,467 11)8. ".. soap, " 10 " lb. 446.70
1,877 bu. ". .ashes, « 5 " bu 908.80
Totiil, $44,503.24
1 ■ ^> :fl
;M'
{•i^SJIJL^i^^miU*!'''^
=B
I.I
! I
62 THE AGRICULTURAL IIISTQRY OF CANADA.
— which sum shows the average value of the produce of
each acre ♦o be $30.32.
On the Elgin ro;i,d in Lowej Canada, below Quebec, 23,507
acres have been allotted, of which 1,457| acres were under
improvement ; 238 souls were residing on the road, and 54
houses and 41 barns and stables erected. Grain and pota-
toes to the value of §3,291.30 were raised in 1860, and the
actual amount of the settlers' labor on this colonization road
was equal to $26,194 in 1860. The total length of coloniz-
ation roads opened in the province in 1860 amounted to
483i miles. This invasion of the wilderness by means of
free grants of land to actual settlers, on lines of road cut
out by the government, is fiist peopling that vast region
north of the immediate valley of the St. Lawrence and the
great lakes, and must soon exercise a very important influ-
ence upon the wealth, power, and political influence of the
country.
CENSUS OF 1851 AND 1861.
The following comparative tables will show the increase
which has taken place in various agricultural productions
in Upper Canada since 1851. The census tables for Lower
Canada were not published at the time of going to press,
and therefore the data for that part of the province is not so
complete as for the sister half.
A comparison between the census reports of 1851 and
1801 will show in a very st. iking manner the progress
which hjis been made in Agricultural Industry during the
last ten years in Upper Canada.
COMPARATIVE TABLE
Of the Agricultural Products, &o., of Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 18G1.
18G1. 18C1.
Population of Upper Canada 9.')2,004 1,396,001
Occupiers of land, 9«j,906 131,983
^.Viieat, bushels. . . .12,682,550 24,620,425
Barley, do 625,452 2,821,962
Rye do 318,429 974,181
*«f>''''T^
THB AOBICULTUBAL HI8T0UY OF CANADA.
03
[lU^
(table concluded.)
Peae, bushels .
Oats, do. .
Buckwheat, do. .
Indian Corn, do. .
Potatoes, do. .
Turnips, do. .
Carrots, do. .
Rlangel Wurzcl, do. .
Hay, tons .
]7iax or Hemp, pounds.
Tobacco, do. .
Maple Sugar, do. .
Cider, gallons.
1851.
3,127,681
11,391,867
579,935
1,688,805
4,982,186
3,110,318
174,686
54,206
693,727
59,680
777,426
3,669,874
742,840
1861.
9,601,496
21,220,874
1,248,037
2,256,290
15,325,920
18,206,959
1,905,598
546,971
801.844
1,225,934
6,970,605
1,567,831
It will be observed upon inspection of tlie foregoing
table that in every item enumerated an increase has taken
place, in some instances of a very favorable character, indi-
cating progress in the true principles of farming practice.
The cultivation of root crops is progressing with extra-
ordinary rapidity, as shown by the production of ] 8,000,000
bushels of turnips in 1861 against a little over 3,000,000
bushels in 1851. The production of mangel wurzel has in-
creased tenfold; wheat has doubled itself; barley shows
more than a fourfold increase; peas, threefold; and the
production of flax and hemp in 1861 is twenty times
greater than in 1851. The cash value of the farms of
Upper Canada reaches the enormous sum of $295,000,000.
We now turn to the live stock as shown in the following
COMPARATIVE TABLE
Of Live Stock in Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 1801.
1851. 18<il.
Bulls, Oxen, and Steers 192,140 99,605
Milch Cows, 297,070 451 ,640
Calves and Heifers, 255,249 464,083
Horses,* 201,670 377,681
Sheep, 1,050,168 1,170,225
Pigs, 571,496 776,001
Total value of Live Stock, $43,227,486
* Including colts and fillies.
Llktt*^^^""
04 FOREST INDUSTRY.
The remarkable diminution in the numbers of bulls and
oxen arises, probably, from the more general use of horses
for farm work. The small increase in the number of sheep
is surprising; but from the wool returns the fleece must be
much heavier than formerly; for, while tlic increase of the
number of sheep is only 120,057, the excess of the wool
crop of 1861 over that of 1851 exceeds 1,000,000 pounds.
The third comparative table to which we now turn relates
rather to manufactures than to agriculture: it exhibits the
mode in which the raw material was utilized, and the
progress made in domestic manufactures: —
COMPARATIVE TABLE,
Showing tliG Number of Yards of Fulled Cloth, Flannel, and Linen Manu-
factured in Upper Canada in 1851 and 1861, respectively.
1S51. 1861.
Fulled Cloth, yards 531 ,560 497,520
Linen, do 14,711 37,055
Flannel, do 1,157,221 1,595,514
In the manufacture of fulled cloth a marked diminution
is perceptible; but a considerable increase has taken place
in the production of linen and flannel, — yet far from being
so large as might reasonably have been anticipated from
the remarkable progress of the country in Agricultural In-
dustry.
CHAPTER V.
FOREST INDUSTRY.
The Canadian forests are great but far from inexhaustible
sources of national wealth. The circumstances attending
the first settlement of a new country necessarily involved an
enormous destruction of valuable trees, which at the time
of the invasion of the wilderness by the pioneer of civiliza-
tion were hewn down, cut into lengths, piled into heaps and
consumed by fire as fast as possible, in order to admit the
warm sun
of magnil
price hav
man is co
wildernes
of the til]
his opei'al
chiefly of
timber to
with ashei
The fo:
woods no
prices :
Oak,
Elm,
"White
Whit.
Red r
Ash, I
liirch
Taina
Wain
Chorr
Biissv
Sprue
IIick(j
Whit.
Maple
INlapK
Re.l {
Iron "'
IlomI
Whit.
Deals
Fic
Sprue
Bonrr
FOREST INDUSTRY.
65
warm sunlight to the earth and fit it for the plow. Millions
of magnificent trees which would now command a fabulous
price have been destroyed in this way, so that the lumber-
man is compelled year by year to retreat farther into the
wilderness, and this will continue until the inferior quality
of the timber arising from a too rigorous climate arrests
his operations. The products of the Canadian forest consist
chiefly of timber in all its forms, from the massive square
timber to the crooked "knees" for ship-building, together
with ashes, both pot and pearl.
TIMBER.
The following table will show the kinds of Cana lian
woods now brought into the markets, with the avf "age
prices ;
ots.- ots.
Oak, per cubic foot, according to average 30 to 40
Elm, do., do. 25 " 30
White Pine, square, do. do. and quality 10 " 18
White Pine, Waney, do. according to average 18 "25
Red Pine, do. do 18 " 25
Ash, do. 14 inches and upwards 15 "20
Birch, do. 1 G inches average 1 7 " 20
Tamarac, do. according to average 17^" 24
Walnut, do. " " 45 " 50
Choriy, do. " " 45 " 50
Basswood, per cubic foot, according to average 12 " 15
Spruce, do do 8 " 12
Hickory,
do.
.do.
40
"White Wood, do do 27 " 32
Maple, hard, do do 22 "25
Maple, bird-eye, do do 22 "25
Rod Oak, do do 30 "35
Iron Wood, do do — " —
Hemlock, do do 12 "15
Beech, do do 17 "20
White Cedar, do do 15 " 20
Deals, Pine, Bright: 1 ql. St. Psbg std. $48 00 to $50 00
2 do 34 00 " 42 00
3 do 26 00 " 30 00
Floated arc usually $2 per std. less.
Spruce: 1 quality, St. Petersburg std $26 to $28
2 do do 20 " 24
^ do do 16 '« 20
Boards, per 1000 Let 12 " 16
i •;■ ■;
7„ ^-'^
\^0i.mJ^
1
66 FOREST INDUSTRY.
Staves : all pipes, per mille, $200 tc $220
assorkd, standard, per mille, 190 " 210
West India, 55 " tiS
Railway Kluepcrs, 9x8x6, per 100 pieces, 26 " 28
Ash O.I IS, iiianufacturi'd, per pair, according to
kngtii $1 20 to S2 40
Ash Oars, rough, 55 " 1 00
Whito Pine masts, $4 por inch, to say 20 inches 5 $6 to say
30 inches.
Kud Pino spars, say 15 inches, f 14 to $10.
The following table sliows the export of timber during
the year 1861:
Quantity. Value.
Ash, 2,422 tons $12,708
Birch, 8,397 " 00,585
Ehn, 32,610 " 265,562
Rl.iple, 127 " 1,014
Oak 55,970 " 526,997
White Pine, 523,112 " 2,594,388
Red Pine, 71,381 " 508,609
Tamaiae, 1,802 " 11,116
Walnut 948 M. feet 22,094
Basswooii, Uuttornut, and Iliek-
orv, 1,786 " 18,.524
SUmdaid Staves, 1.765 mille 248,653
Other Staves, 4,989 " 167,385
Knees 5,833 pieces 5,294
Scantling and Treenails, 1 8,585
Deals, 67,333 S. han 2,189,792
Deal ends, 1,929 " 49,7.50
Planks and Boards, 165,583 M. feet 1,570,381
Spars 5,511 pieces 29,818
Masts, 774 " 38,101
Other woods, railroad ties, &o., 390,484
TotiU, $8,693,038
One hundred years ago (1759) the exports of lumber
amounted to $31,250; about half a ecntury since (1808)
the value of the exports of lumber did not exceed .'^■lOOjOOO,
so that within the memory of many who can recollect lum-
bering operations at the commencement of the present
century, the foreign trade has increased twenty-fold, be-
sides the enormous quantities which have been consumed
by a population growing from 300,000 to nearly 3,000,000
souls. Tiie value of the imports of lumber in 18G0 ex-
ceeded $10,000,000.
I I
1
i 1
m 1
t'>
11' -tttfl
ill
!'
'ti
fS
jjyLiiii^*
~'t 1 Riw
i| ;|!Si:,
i
The mo:
Canada ar(
1st. The
area of 75,
ash are chi
2nd. Th
of 22,000 f
yellow and
3rd. Thf
Eich in wl
4th, The
pine, sprue
5th. Th
pine, sprue
6th. Th(
and wahiu
7th. The
contains a "
N'ot less
engaged ir
technieally
of the falls
floated fron
borers for I
to supply tl
berers are
although tl
in their pro
obliterated,
years oceup
being the sc
wilds into f
The f
aino
6
FOREST INDUSTRY.
67
The most important and extensive timber territories of
Canada are subjoined :
1st. The country drained by the Ottawa, containing an
area of 75,000 square miles. The white pine, red pine, and
ash are cliicfly obtained from this region.
2nd. The Si.. Maurice and its tributaries, draining an area
of 22,000 square miles. Contains large quantities of white,
yellow and r^ 1 pine, spruce, birch, maple, and elm.
8rd. The Saugenay country, area 21,000 square miles.
Rich in white and red pine, spruce, birch, and tamarac.
4th. The north sliore of Lake Huron. White and red
pine, spruce, cedar, birch, and maple.
5th, The extensive Gasp6 Peninsula. White and red
pine, spruce, tamarac, and birch.
6th. The Peninsula of Canada West contains oak, elm,
and walnut.
7th. The Ontario territory, north of Lake Ontario, still
contains a large amount of white pine, elm, maple, &c.
THE LUMDER TRADE.
Not less than twenty-five thousand persons are directly
engaged in lumbering operations. Government works,
technicallj'- called slides, have been constructed on the sides
of the falls on the great rivers down which the lumber is
floated from the interior. Farmers have followed the lum-
berers for be3-ond the frontiers of the settlements, in order
to supply them with oats, potatoes, peas and hay; the lum-
berers are essentially the pioneers of civilization, and
although they leave the marks of desolation behind them
in their progi-ess through the wilderness, these soon become
obliterated, and the snug farm-house in the course of a few
years occupies the site of the lumberer's rude log shanty,
being the second stage of the transformation of the forest
wilds into fruitful farms.
The amount of revenue accruing from timber dues and
ift'i
,.;:^I1
5i ; ijBrf I
lit
ii|i
68 FOREST INDUSTKY.
ground rent in 1861 -was $327,503, and from slide dues
$55,546, or a total of $383,050.
British American lumber is chiefly exported to the United
Kingdom, but there can be no doubt that the trade is di-
minishing, while there is every prospect of an increased
trade taking place between continental European ports and
British America. Thirty years ago, one-third of all the
British tonnage trading beyond the seas, or about 300,000
tons, navigated by 16,000 seamen, was engaged in the colo-
nial timber trade. During the year 1830 out of 40,000
emigrants which arrived from Europe, more than 30,000
were carried out by the timber ships. During the four
years between 1857 and 1860, both inclusive, the propor-
tion of British North American lumber imported into the
United Kingdom was in
1857 50 per cent, of the whole.
1858 48 " " " " "
1859 44" " " " "
1860 45 " " " " "
Hence it appears that the average decrease in the imports of
lumber from British North America to the United King-
dom, during the above period, is about 11| per cent., while
the increase on the imports of foreign lumber is nearly 10
per cent. During 1861 about twenty cargoes of Canadian
lumber were exported to the continent of Europe, and nu-
merous inquiries continue to be made respecting the timber
resources of the country. So rapidly is the price of timber
increasing in France that standing timber worth 50 francs
per 85 cubic feet in 1852 was worth 100 francs five years
later.
The industry to which the manufacture of the different
products of the forest gives rise is very extensive. In 1851
there were 1,567 saw-mills in Upper Canada, and 1,065 in
Lower Canada. The number of feet manufactured during
the year amounted to 301,051,820 and 381,560,950 respect-
ively. S
increased
from whit
some con
formed fr^
of §1,507
being not
ada ten y(
a remarks
war whic
across the
The ex
States is <
prosperity
Value of Exj
185'
The sudde
to 1,500,0(
occasioned
unhappily
The yea
trade. Tl
that seasor
exported -u
to the Que
242,689 fo(
degree aiu
year. In
000,000 fe
1848 a totf
17,000,000,
dered at thr
The exciter
'IS '
FOREST INDUSTRr.
69
ively. Since 1851 the quantity manufactured has no doubt
increased enormously, but no data are at present published
from v4iich satisfactory conclusions can be drawn, although
sonic conception of the magnitude of the trade may be
formed from the fact that planks and boards to the value
of §1,507,546 were exported to the United States in 1861,
being not far from half the total production of Upper Can-
ada ten years previously, although the trade had suffered to
a remarkable extent in consequence of the calamitous civil
war which is now wasting the energies of our brethren
across the international boundary.
The exportation of planks and boards to the United
States is one of the most important Canadian sources of
prosperity as may be inferred from the following table.
Value of Exports of Planks and Boards to the United States from 1857 to
1861 inclusive.
1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861.
$2,558,206 $2,890,319 $2,676,447 $3,027,730 $1,507,546.
The sudden diminution from more than 3,000,000 in 1860
to 1,500,000 in 1861 results from a temporary depression
occasioned by the civil war in which the United States are
unhappily engaged.
The year 1845 was a most prosperous one for the lumber
trade. The quantity of square timber brought to market
that season amounted to 27,704,344 feet, and the quantity
exported was 24,223,000 feet. In 1846 the quantity brought
to the Quebec market rose to 3 7, 300, 643. feet, but only 24,-
242,689 feet were exposed. Hence prices fell to a ruinous
degree and a great blow was given to the trade during that
year. In 1847 there was a stock supply of more than 44,-
000,000 feet to meet a demand for 19,000,000 and in
1848 a total supply of 39,000,000 to meet a demand for
17,000,000. Under such circumstances it is not to be won-
dered at that the timber trade became exceedingly depressed.
The excitement of high prices has fostered over-production,
:-SSj.,
I •*■■<'■
"!
I I
70
FOREST INDUSTRY.
and the diminisbed consumption of Canadian timber in
Great Britain brought prices down to the lowest ebb.
When the trade is in a prosperous condition the profits are
sometimes excessive, speculation then ensues and ruin fre-
quently follows. The character of the trade is changing
as the timber groves become more remote, more capital be-
ing required to carry on lumbering operations on a profit-
able scale. Many lumberers now invest a considerable
portion of their capital in clearing and cultivating farms in
connection with their timber limits for the purpose of rais'
ing provender for their stock and food for their hands.
A glance at forest industry v/ould be incomplete if we
were not to note a contingency to which the timber trade
is becoming more and more liable each year. One of the
most destructive agents in the vast pine forests north of the
St. Lawrence, is fire. Thousands of square miles of the
forest timber have been ruined by this ruthless destroyer.
Fires in the woods do not generally extend so lar as one
at the first blush supposes; they rarely go beyond thirty
miles in length by ten in breadth, but it is the frequent
occurrence of these fires which in the long run of years
lays waste so much valuable property; and with the pro-
gress of the lumberers in the wilderness the chances of
fresh conflagrations yearly become more imminent.
The produce of the forest of most importance next to
lumber has alw\ays been pot and pearl ashes. Potashes
are made from the crude ashes by dissolving the soluble
salts with water, evaporating to dr3mess and fusing at a red
heat into a compact mass, which although grey on the out-
side is pink colored within. Pearlash is made by calcining
potashes upon a reverberatory hearth until the carbon and
much of the sulpliur is dissipated. Water is then added,
and a lye formed, which, when evaporated to dryness,
yields the pearlash of commerce. Canadian potashes con-
tain on an average about 60 per cent, of carbonate of
Comparative SUi
FOREST INDUSTRY.
71
potassa. Pearlash contains generally about 50 per cent, of
caustic potassa. The quantity of potashes obtained from tlic
combustion of the trees or vegetables on a given area of
ground depends altogether upon the species. Thus, while
the pine 3'iekls only 0.45 per mille, the oak gives 1.53, the
willow 2.85, elm and maple 3.90 per mille, or 39 per cent.
The value of ashes, both pot and pearl, exported from Can-
ada during the years 1859 to 1861 inclusive, was as follows
—three-fourths going to the United Kingdom :
1859.
Potashes $760,512
Puarlashes 337,759
1860.
$741,473
219.633
1861.
$705,228
173,779
Total,
$1,107,271 S901,106 $879,007
In addition to these staple productions of our forests, we
have a growing trade in Canada balsam, turpentine, pitch,
spruce gum, oil of spruce, oil of hemlock, hemlock bark,
maple sugar, bark of the basswood, bark of the butternut,
and of the hickory, sassafras, sumach, bark of the white
oak, and of the sHppery elm, besides the medicinal plants
common to Canada and the northern States of the Ameri-
can Union.
GENERAL RESULTS.
Comparative Statement of the Produce of the Forest, from 1853 to 1861,
inclusive :
1853, $9,121,010
1854, 9,981,367
1855, 7,947.923
1856, 1(I,0I9,8S3
1857, 11,575,508
1858, $9,284,514
1859, 9,663,962
1860, 11,012,253
1861, 9,572,645
Very few years have elapsed since the produce of the
forest formed the most important of Canadian exports, as the
following comparison will show. Of late years, agriculture
has asserted a superior claim and will no doubt maintain it:
Rill
^'I'lL
( <
ILii;:; I
' I
; J
Y2 FOREST INDUSTRV.
iai9. 1850. 1861.
Value of the Products of the Forest ex-
ported, $5,310,148 $r),l42,93f) SC,038,1SO
Value of all other productions, 4,000.108 5,237,056 5,200,340
Balance in favor of Forests, $1,310,040 $205,880 $777,840
X859. 1800. 1861.
Value of Agricultural Productions ex-
ported, $7,339,798 $14,259,225 $18,244,631
Value of the Products of the Forest ex-
ported, 9,663,962 11,012,253 9,572,645
Balance in favor of Forests, $2,324,164
Balance in favor of Agriculture, $3,247,972 $8,071,986
THE LUMBERERS.
A lumberer's life is full of tliat half-wild excitement
■which belongs to the wilderness, and few who have en-
gaged in this apparently laborious and at times dangerous
industry are willing to relinquish it for the tamer pursuits
of the farm. When any one intends to " make timber," as
it is technically called, — that is, to cut and bring lumber to
market, — the first operation is to take a " limit," and having
thoroughly explored it and laid out roads to the most con-
venient water-course or "drivable" creek, he engages his
men, either for cutting the timber, or for cutting tlie timber
and the " drive " (or from the time of commencing opera-
tions to the period when it is brought to Quebec or any
other convenient port.) A "grove of pine" having been
found and rough roads cut or laid out if necessary, the op-
eration of making the timber commences. The hands are
divided into gangs, which generally consist of four or more
cutters who fell the trees and bark them for the liner. The
liner marks the tree for the "scorers," who block it olT, —
that is, cut off branches, knots, &c. The broad-ax man
follows, who squares and finishes the "pieces." During
the winter, when the snow lies sufficiently deep on the ground,
each piece is hauled by a yoke of oxen or a pair of horses
to the bank of the drive, where the timber is piled on
or near the roll-way until the return of spring melts the
'W^
FOREST li«OrSTRY.
15
frozen creek and the waters nse to a convenient "driving
condition," A lumber "shanty" generally contains three
or four gang?, headed by a foreman whose duty it is to call
the men up in the morning, lay off their work, take their
time, and superintend operations generally. The broad-ax
man makes each night a return of the quantity of timl)er
made during the da}'. Wlien the rivers are in suitable
driving condition, the most perilous and laborious part of
lumbering operations begins. The pieces are pushed into
the stream and floated down to its junction with the main
river, where they are retained by a temporary boom. Wheu
the tributary streams on which the lumber is made are nar-
row, it is a matter of some difficulty to accomplish 1 ae
drive, and the men are often exposed for weeks together to
all the inconveniencies and dangers which attend frequent
wading through in cold water. Jams not unfrequently
occur at the bends of the stream or above falls, and the
utmost caution is necessary in removing the obstruction
which retains the confused mass of pieces, apparently in-
volved in inextricable confusion. The cutting away of a
single stick or piece is often sufficient to set the accumulated
mass in motion, and accidents of a fatal description are not
unfrequent in endeavoring to loosen a "jam." The main
river once reached, a number of pieces are fastened together
by means of withes, and formed into a raft, which slowly
floats down the river towards a sea or lake port. The great
distance up the tributaries of the large rivers draining a
timber territory to which the lumberers have penetrated,
often causes the drive to occupy from two to three months.
An idea of the immense distance from which lumber is now
brought may be obtained when it is known that the lum-
berers traveling up the tributaries of the Ottawa are now
raeetino; those who have ascended the rivers flowinj? into
Lake Huron; and the broad height of land which sends
waters to the St, Lawrence by the tributaries of the Ottawa,
wmmmmm
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74
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
to Lake Ontario by the Trent, and to Lake Iluron by the
Muskoka and other rivers, resounds with the ax and shout
of luiabermen who have reached the same spot by travers-
ing the rivers draining three different water-sheds, after
clearing the country of all timber groves conveniently situ-
ated for driving.
CHAPTER VL
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
Beyond the dividing ridge which separates the waters
flowing into Lake Superior from those which take a north-
wcstei-ly and then northerly direction towards Hudson's
Bay, lies the Great Inland Basin of Lake Winnipeg, occu-
pying a very considerable extent of the North American
continent, and forming part of the British possessions known
as tlie North-West Territory, or Rupert's Land.
The Basin of Lake Winnipeg extends from the 90th to
the 118th meridian. Its most easterly margin lies on the
boundary of Canada, west of Lake Superior, in long. 90°
14, lat..48" 53, being tlic head waters of Savanne River, a
remote tributary of tlio Winn i peg. Tlic most westerly limit
of this vast basin is tlie Glacier, near IIoAvse' Pass, in long.
117° 35, lat. 51° 52', from which a branch of the Saskatchewan
takes its rise. The southern extension of its boundary is
Lake Traverse, in Dakotah territory, long. 96° 43, lat. 45°
58. It stretclies north as far as Frog Portage, long. 103°
30, lat 55° 20. This Basin consequently extends over 28
degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of latitude. The eleva-
tion of its eastern boundary is 1,485 feet above the ocean,
and the heiglit of land near the sources of the tributary
which rises farthest to the wesL is 6,347 feet above the same
level. Its northern boundary is separated from the valley
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
T5
of the Mississippi by a]ow portage over which waters flow
during floods, while towards the south, Lake Ti-avcrse,
which also sends water into the Mississippi during spring
freshets, is only 820 feet above the sea. The outlet of Lake
Winnipeg is through the contracted and rocky channel of
Nelson River, which flows into Iludson's Bay. The mean
breadth of the Basin of Lake Winnipeg is about 380
English miles, and its mean length 920 miles, hence its area
is approximately 360,000 square miles, or about as large as
the Province of Canada.
Lake Winnipeg is 628 feet above the sea, and, with Lakes
Manitobah, Winnipegosis, and Dauphin, covers an area
exceeding 13,000 square miles, or about half as much as
Ireland. The country possessing a mean elevation of one
hundred feet above Lake Winnipeg is well marked by an
ancient lake ridge called Pembina Mountain, and may con-
tain 70,000 square miles, nine-tenths of which are lake,
marsh or surfiicc rock of Silurian or Devonian age, and
generally so thinly covered with soil, with the exception of
that part of the valleys of Eed River and the Assiniboine
which lie within it, as to be unfit for cultivation, except in
small detached areas.
Succeeding the low regions there are the narrow terraces
of the Pembina Mountain, which rise in abrupt steps, ex-
cept where Cut by the broad valleys of rivers, to the level
of a higher plateau, whose eastern limit is formed by the
precipitous escarpments of the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine
Mountains, with detached outlines, Turtle, Thunder, and
Pasquia Mountains. This is the great Phaiuie Plateau
of Rupert's Land ; it is bounded towards the south-west
and west by the Grand Cotcau du Missouri, which forms
the north-eastern limit of the Plains of the north-west.
The area of the Prairie Plateau is about 120,000 squoro
miles; it possesses a mean elevation of 1,100 feet above the
sea, and consists of cretaceous rocks, overlaid in some parts
it'
itiii
111
ii
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t,,i/uii.>^^
IB
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78
THE NORTII-WEJiT TEUKITOUY.
with tertiary formations. The Biding and Duck Moun-
tains, 1,600 feet above the ocean, no doubt once formed part
of an unbroken level to the Grand Coteau, the intervening
depression having been the result of denudation. The is-
olated range of hills, such as the Touchwood Hills, the File
Hill, the Pleasant Hill, the Birch Hill, kc, are parts of this
former elevated table-land, and would assume the character
of islands in a sea washing the base of the Grand Coteau
du Missouri. The Great Plains rise gently as the Bocky
Mountains are approached, and at their western limit have
an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea level. With only a
very narrow belt of intervening country, the mountains rise
abruptly from the Plains, and present lofty precipices, frown-
ing like battlements over the level country to the eastward
and separating the rich golden treasures of Britisl: Colum-
bia from the wide sterile wastes of the South Saskatchewan
or the long and narrow fertile belt through which the North
Saskatchewan pursues its winding course of nearly one
thousand miles. The average altitude of the highest part
of the Bocky Mountains is 12,000 feet ; in lat. 51°, the forest
extends to the altitude of 7,000 feet, or 2,000 feet above
the Vermilion Pass. The "Fertile Belt" of the North-
West consists of the richest arable soil, partly in the form
of open prairie, partly covered with groves of aspen;
it stretches fi'oni the Lake of the Woods to tlie foot
of the Bocky ACountains, about 800 miles, and aver-
ages from 80 ir 100 miles in breadth. The North Sas-
katchewan flows through this Fertile Belt, in a valley
varying from one-fourth of a mile to one mile in In-oadth,
and excavated to the depth of 200 to 300 feet below the
level of the plains or prairie through which it flows, until
it reaches the low country some miles east of Fort a la
Corne. The area of this remarkable strip of rich soil and
pasturage is about -±0,000,000 acres. It was formerly a
wooded country, but by successive fires iv has been par-
fm^
THE NORTH-WEST TERUIXOKY.
11
tiallj cleared of its forest growth, but abounds with the
most luxuriant herbage, and generally possesses a deep,
rich soil of vegetable mould. The winter of this region is
not more severe than that of Lower Canada. The snow is
never very deep, and in the wildest tracts the natural pas-
ture is so abundant that horses and cattle may be left to
obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter.
This perennial supply of food for cattle might have been
predicted from the fact that the North Saskatchewan west
of Carlton supports vast herds of buffalo during the winter
season, and formerly the whole of the fertile belt used to be
the favorite winter quarters of countless herds who fattened
on the rich abundance of the natural grasses, scraping the
snow away with their feet, and never failing to obtain
abundance of well preserved hay beneath. The Fertile
Belt of the North Saskatchewan valley does not derive its
importance from the bare fact that it contains 64,000 square
miles of country immediately available for agricultural pur-
poses in one coniinuous strip, 800 miles long and 80 broad,
stretching across the continent ; it is rather by contrast with
an immense sub-arctic area to the north and a vast desert
area to the south that t^is favored "Edge of the AVoods"
country acquires political and commercial importance. A
broad agricultural region, capable of sustaining many mil-
lions of people, and abundantly supplied with iron ore and
an inferior variety of coal, and spanning the eight hundred
miles which separate Lake Winnipeg from tlie llocky
Mountains, more than compensates for the rocky character
of the timbered desert between the Lake of the Woods and
Lake Superior. The South Saskatchewan flows tlirough an
and district which reaches as far north as lat. 52. Tlie stiff
clays of the cretaceous and tertiary deposits, often highly
impregnated with salts, bakes into a hard and cracked sur-
face during the summer. The characteristic plants of the
arid region are the pretty prairie apples {Opuntia) and the
111
78
THE NOKTII-WEST TERUITORY.
slirub suge {Artemisia.) Witliin the fertile belt the alluvial
Quts of the river valleys arc clothed with the balsam poplar
and a dense tliicket of willows, dogwood, amclanchier, and
red willow, together with Shejjherdia argentea. On the
praiiics of the Belt the aspen occurs in groves, and dense
thickets of willows surround marshes and swamps. On the
sides of the rising grounds the Elcmgnus argentm forms a low
silvery copse, affording food to large coveys of prairie
grouse. On high ground, with a sandy soil, the bear-berry
or kin-i-kinic forms a close matting. Towards the Rocky
Mountains large expanses of plain are covered with a low
birch or alder six to eight inches high, which in winter
gives the appearance of a heather-covered moorland to
these prairies. In June and July the prairies are covered
with brightly colored flowers, or completely clothed with a
dense copse of rose bushes and in many places of snow-
berry. As. the country towards the south merges into open
prairies, the clumps of copse and young poplars are found
only on northern exposures. The last outliers of the woods
to the south form "Islands," which make a great show in
the distance, but when approached are found to consist of a
small species of willow, that will, yield neither fire-wood
nor shelter.* The whole of the Fertile Belt is well fitted
for S(^ttlement and agricultural colonization. All common
cereals and green crojis have been grown successfully at
the diilerent posts of the Hudson Bay Company within this
district.
The recent discoveries of gold in British Columbia have
given extraordinary importance to that colony, and to tlio
great Fertile Belt of the Saskatcliewan valley in view of a
high road across the continent. During the season of nav-
igation the facilities for reaching any part of Lake Superior
are such that a vessel from Liverpool, of a capacity fitted
* See Dr. James Hector on the Physical Foaturos of tho central part of
British North America
^«*— rrff.
THE NORTH-WEST TEBRITOUT. 79
tO go througli the locks of the Welland Canal, may dis*
charge her cargo at Fort William or any port on this vast
inland sea without breaking bulk. The next step in an
overland communication to British Columbia is from Lake
Superior to the settlement on Eed River. The water part-
ing is not more than 890 feet above Lake Superior, and the
countr}^ is thickly wooded with valuable trees as far as the
Lake of the Woods. There does not exist any difficulty
in ^he construction of a road between Thunder Bay and
the most easterly indent of Rainy Lake, a distance of 200
miles. Between Rainy Lake and the north-west angle of
the Lake of the Woods, the country in rear of Rainy river,
a distance of 120 miles, is unexplored, and its facilities for
a direct land communication unknown. From the north-
west angle of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, 90
miles, is a level country, which has already been traveled
by horses, although the swampe near Lac Plat are formida-
ble. The third step is the valley of the Saskatchewan,
already described, which, even in its present state is con-
stantly traversed with horses and carts from Red River to
the Rocky Mountains. The following are the altitudes of
the principal passes iu the mountains above tlie sea level:
Altitude in Feet.
Kicking Horse Pass, lat. 51° 25', 5.420
Vermilion Pass, lat. 51o lo', 4,914
Kaiianaski Pass, hit. 50O 40', 5.985
Kootanie Pass, lat. 49° 25' 6,000
The height of land not 5,000 feet above the sea on the line
of the Vermilion Pass once crossed, the auriferous ter-
races of British Columbia come into view. Tlie Cariboo
and Kootanie diggings are both on the immediate west flank
of the Rocky Mountain range, or between 400 and 500 miles
from the Pacil'\c coast. Tiie whole valley of the upper
Columbia is auriferous, and gold has been found on the
eastern slope, two hundred miles from the mountains, in
[r
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m
80
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORT.
the bed of the Saskatchewan, but it is not probable that
the auriferous region on the east of the mountain is of great
extent, as the ancient rocks from which the gold must have
been derived have not been observed on that side. A great
future lies before the valley of the Saskatchewan ; it will
become the granary of British Columbia, the vast pasture
field by which the mining industry of the Rocky Moun-
tains will be fed. British Columbia is rich in the precious
metals, but poor in arable land ; the Fertile Belt of the
Saskatchewan is marvelously fruitful in forage plants,
possesses an admirable soil, and embraces besides an im-
mense supply of coal and iron ore of the best quality.
With these conditions, added to a very healthy climate, it
is not too much to expect that the Basin of Lake Winnipeg
will one day become the seat of an industrious, prosperous,
and powerful people, who, in these days of steam, will
always be able to communicate with the outer world for
two months in the year, at least, by way of Hudson Bay,
even if other outlets should be closed against them through
unhappy international troubles.*
THE LABRADOR PENINSULA.
The vast peninsula which commonly bears the name of
T-abrador, a term more correctly applied to the north-eastern
portion, occupies an area between the Atlantic and Hudson's
Bay, lying wdthin the forty-ninth and sixty-third parallels,
and between the fifty-fifth and seventy-ninth meridians.
The Gulf of St. Lawrence, the North Atlantic, Hudson's
Straits and Hudson's Bay are its boundaries on three sides;
]-lupcrt's River, the Mistassinni and the Bersiamits rivers
may be considered as forming the approximate south-western
limits of this peninsula. From the mouth of Rupert's
River on Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Bersiamits on
* Soo "Niirralivo of the Canadian Kxpeditioua in Rupert's Land," by tho
author of lliis article.
•'^■^rm'
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
81
the St. Lawrence, tlie distance is about 470 miles, and from
Cape Wolstenliolme, the most northern point of the country
to the Straits of Belle Isle, it is 1,100 miles. Traveling
northward from the Iludson Bay Company's post at Bcr-
sicamits, in a direct line to IJngava Bay, the distance would
be about 650 miles, while to Cape Wolstenholme to the
west, not less than one thousand. The area of the Labrador
Peninsula is approximately 42,000 square miles, or equal
to the British Isles, France, and Prussia combined, and the
greater portion of it lies between the same parallels of lat-
itude as Great Britain.
The whole of this immense country is uninhabited by
civilized man, with the exception of a few settlements on
the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic coast, and some widely
separated posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. It is very
thinly peopled by nomadic bands of Montagnais, Nasqua-
pee and Mistassinni Indians, and the northern coast by
wandering Esquimaux. Taken as a whole it is a region
altogether unfit for the abode of civilized man, and although
once rich in fur-bearing animals, and in cariboo or reindeer,
it is now almost a desert.
In the absence of any definite boundaries, the entire
peninsula is divided into three parts, supposed to be sep-
arate water-sheds, to which special names have been given.
The area draining into the Elver and Gulf of St. Lawrence,
belongs to Canada, whose eastern boundary is at Blanc
Sablon, near the mouth of the North-West Eiver. The
country sujiposed to be drained by rivers which flow
into the Atlantic is called Labrador, and is under the
jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remaining part of
the peninsula, which is drained by rivers flowing into
Hudson's Bay has received the designation of the East
Main. The names and position of the mouths only
of the numerous rivers which flow into the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, from the Bay of Seven Islands to the Siraits
E ■:■,
J^:
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m
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82
TUB NORTII-WKST TERRITORY.
of Belle Isle, are correctly given in published maps of the
country, and nearly the whole of our present knowledge of
the east side of the Labrador Peninsula is derived from
Capt. Bayfield's surveys, which are limited to the coast,
and no map yet published exhibits a correct geographical
picture of the interior of the country.
The ]\roisic or IMiste-shipu liiver, the "Great River" of
the Montrti>;nais Indians, enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence
in longitude 63° 10 , and has its sources in some of the
lakes and swamps of the high table-lands of Eastern Can-
ada. For centuries it has bean one of the leading lines of
communication from the interior to the coast, traveled by
the Montagnais daring the time when they were a numerous
and powerful people, capable of congregating upwards of a
thousand warriors to repel the invasion of the Esquimaux,
who were accustomed to hunt for a few weeks during the
summer months a short distance up the rivers east of the
Moisic, as they do now on the Coppermine, Anderson's and
Mackenzie's rivers in the country of the Hare Indians, and
the Louchcux. The old and well-worn portage paths round
falls iuid ra})ids and over precipitous mountains on the up-
per Moisic, testify to the antiquity of the route, independ-
ently of the traditions of the Indians who now hunt on the
river and on the table-land to which it is the highway.
The Jilontagnais Indians have for centuries had a water
communication between Seven Islands on the Gulf and
Hamilton Inlet on the Atlantic Ocean, via the Moisic, the
Ash-wa-nipi to a great lake on the table-land in the interior
called Petshikupan, thence by the Hamilton River to the
Inlet of the same name. The whole river may bo known
by the name of tlio Ashwanipi, which takes its rise near
the head waters of die Moisic, and from which it is separ-
ated by a low and narrow water parting. The Ashwanipi
flows through five degrees of longitude, and little more
than two degrees of latitude, traversing the elevated table
l'^
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land of th
Gulf coast
at the SOU!
eminently
cariboo m(
and aspen
the table-h
ders, some'
ices are pe
often on th
foot to twt
the awful
Peninsula.''
All tribe
to the Atla
of their su
the fish-spe
of St. Law]
daytime is
with the ii
salmon by
work. It I
its most st]
in the full s
bilities for i
roused to e:
body and tl
See how ;
of the even
one another
voices distil
* See " Expli
thor of tliia aiti
6
TUB NORTH-WEST TERRITORT.
83
land of the Peninsula in a direction roughly parallel to the
Gulf coast. The table-land is 2,240 feet above the ocean
at the sources of the east branch of the Moisic. It is prC'
eminently sterile, and where the country is not burned,
cariboo moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch
and aspen in the hollows and deep ravines. The whole of
the table-land is strewed with an infinite number of boul-
ders, sometimes three and four deep; these singular errat-
ices are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill,
often on the edges of cliffs, and they vary in size from one
foot to twenty feet in diameter. Language fails to paint
the awful desolation of the table-land of the Labrador
Peninsula.*
INDIAN SALMON-SPEARING IN LABRADOR.
All tribes of Indians from the Red River of the Korth
to the Atlantic coast of Labrador, draw a considerable share
of their support from the lakes and rivers, by means of
the fish-spear or " negog " of the Montagnais of the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. But spearing any kind of fish during the
daytime is a tame and monotonous occupation compared
with the irrepressible excitement which attends spearing
salmon by torch-light, with Indians who understand their
work. It unfolds the real character of the Indian race in
its most striking peculiarities ; it displays untutored man
in the full strength of his natural gifts, expresses his capa-
bilities for intense enjoyment, and shows how he may be
roused to exert for hours together the utmost activity of
body and the greatest presence of mind.
See how gently they step into their canoe in the gloom
of the evening ju^t passing into night. They whisper to
one another, although there is no fear of the sound of their
voices disturbing the prey of which they are in search.
• See " Kxplorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula" by the au-
thor of this article.
0
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1 1 Di
84
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
"Watcli the one in the bow trying the flexible clasping tines
of his "negog" or salmon-spear, springing them backward
to see if they have lost their elasticity, or if they can be
trusted to hold a powerful fish in their grasp; how he
straightens the long and slender shaft and lays it tenderly
under the bars of the canoe within reach of his hand. He
next examines the rolls of birch-bark w^hich he will use for
torches, and fastens a cleft stick to the bow of his canoe,
in which he will insert one extremity of the flaming roll.
Turning round to ask his companion if he has "fire," he re-
ceives a low grunt in reply, which is followed by a subdued
howh ! howh ! and both grasping their paddles, away the
canoe glides towards the foot of the rapids, to a well known
sh.'dlow, or close to the tumbling waters of a cataract where
the fish are known to lie.
The torch is lit, and the spearman relinquishing his pad-
dle stands in the bow of the canoe, glancing eagerly from
side to side. Suddenly he pushes his spear in a slanting
direction, and quickly draws it back, lifting a salmon int(
the canoe ; a second push and another victim ; now he at-
taches a thin line of sinew to his spear and twines it round
his arm. Like an arrow he darts his spear ; it is whirled
away with a sudden jerk, and trembles in the stream ; he
gently but steadily draws it towards him with the line of
sinew, and grasping it when within reach, lifts his quarry
into the canoe. Look over the side of the little craft, the
salmon are seen coming to the light, they gaze for a moment
and glide away like spectres into the black waters ; some
of them swim round the canoe, and come to look again and
again, pausing but for a moment to speculate upon its
brightness, and the next lie quivering at the bottom of the
canoe.
Both Indians at the same moment see a fish of unusual
size approach the light, gaze without stopping and quickly
move off", hover about at some little distance, suspicious
f'^lv^ 1
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
85
and distrustful, but still attracted by the light. Gently and
noiselessly the canoe is urged toward him by the Indian in
the stern, no words pass between him and his companion,
both saw the fish at the same moment and both know that
they will take him. But look at the Indian with the spear,
look at his face illumined by the red flare of the burning
torch; his mouth is half open with suspense, but he d s
not breathe through it, his dilated eyes are flashing intci
he stands so motionless, with uplifted spear ready to stril
that he looks like a statue of bronze. But there is life in
tliat expanding and contracting nostril, life in the two thin
streams of vapor which puff from his nostrils into the
keen night air ; and is there not sudden and vigorous life
in that swift dart of the spear, those parting lips closing
together in unison with the fling of his arm? is there not
intelligent life in that momentary light which flashes from
his eyes, red like the gleams which they reflect, and in that
smile, triumphant and assured, which he throws at his com-
panion, as, without uttering a word or sound, he lifts witii
both hands the heavy fish straight from the water, holds it
struggling over the canoe, and shakes it from his spear ?
Is this the languid, drowsy savage which you have often
seen slouching through the day, indolent and li'ji/iess, a
sluggard and a drone?
They go to the foot of the cataract ; the largest fish lie
there in little eddies close to the rocks, waiting for an oppor-
tunity to take their leap up the tumbling waters, to shel-
tered parts above, where they may rest in their diflicult
ascent. Now is the full measure of the Indian's skill re-
quired ; the broken water at the edge of the main rapid at
the foot of the cataract rocks the canoe, and would seem
to destroy the spearer's aim; the water is deep, and he
must throw his weapon, he cannot push it as in the shallows
or a quiet stream. The Indian who is steering and paddling
must beware of strong eddies, of whirlpools, of getting
ft 4.''M;
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86
THE NORTH-WEST TEBRITTORT.
under the cataract, or of sidling into the rapid below. He
must have his eye on the canoe, the water, and the salmon,
and his hand ready at any moment to edge off from danger
and never give way lO momentary excitement, even when
the spear is thrown, and a heavy fish struck, — the rocks,
the impetuous torrent, the tumbling waters at his bow, the
flickering light not always to be relied on, must be watched,
for a slight change in an eddy may swamp the fragile craft,
or break it on a rock.
There is indescribable excitement in the dancing motion
at the foot of a cataract, in a tiny birch-bark canoe, by the
red light of a torch during a night without a moon. You
see before you a wall of water, red, green and white tum-
bling incessantly at your feet, on either hand you gaze on
a wall of rock, rising so high as to be lost in the gloom and
apparently blending with the sky. You look behind and
there is a foaming torrent rushing into the blackness of
night, sweeping past the eddy in which your birch craft is
lightly dancing to the loud music of a water-fall. No sound
but its never-ceasing din can reach you; no near object
meets your eye which dco'^ not reflect a red glare and assume
an unaccustomed character which the warm and cheery color
imparts. Suddenly the torch falls and is instantly extin-
guished in the rushing waters; absolute darkness envelopes
you, the white foam, the changing green of the falling wa-
ter, the red reflected light of the broken waves, all be-
come uniformly and absolutely black. Nothing what-
ever is discernible to the eye, but perhaps another sense
tells of swift undulating motion, a rolling ride over stormy
waves, with lessening roar. Your eyes gradually recover
their power of vision, and you find yourself either swaying
up and down in the same eddy or far away from the fall on
the main channel of the river, secure against whirlpools
and rocks, with the Indians quietly paddling the canoe
and about to turn again to resume their savage sport. The
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THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
87
moment the light fell into the water, an event which often
occurs with birch-bark torches, the Indian at the stern de-
cided whether to remain in the eddy, or to enter the rapid
and descend it until his power of vision was restored.
This is a contingency for which all salmon-spearers in such
situations must be prepared. Indecision might prove fatal;
for if the eddy were safe in absolute darkness for a quarter
of a minute, it would be wise to remain ; if there is danger
of being sucked under the fall, it would be well to seek
refuge from a sudden deluge, or from rocks and whirlpools
in the swift but tumultuous rapid. This can only occur on
a large river, and at the foot of a fall. Water in rapid
motion is a terrible power, and none know how to take ad-
vantage of its humors better than the wild Indian salmon-
spearer, who avoids its dangers with matchless skill and
self possession, and who seeks the excitement it offers as if
it were the mainspring of his life, or the aim of his ex-
istence.
UFE IN THE WILDERNESS.
From the earliest period when the fur trade was prose-
cuted with vigor in British America, those wanderers
through the woods, the Coureurs clu Bois, with their descend-
ants, the Bois brules, or Half-breeds, have always occupied
a prominent position on the frontiers of civilization, and
latterly among many of the nomadic Indian tribes which
peopled and still occupy the vast north-west territory.
Life in the wilderness has not only peculiar charms to these
cliildren of the forest and the prairies, but it annually wins
for months or l\ >r years many who have been brought up and
educated in all the refinements of civilized society. It is
difficult to say wherein lies the greatest charm of the ^' il-
derness of British America, within the limits of the vuiiey
of the St. Lawrence, or the valley of the Saskatchewan.
Rocks, mounta'ns, foaming torrents, magnificent cataracts,
BLl
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68
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
and endless forests distinguish tlie St. Lawrence. Bound-
less prairies, sweet-scented breezes, and gorgeous sunsets are
the characteristics of the Saskatchewan. In summer the
prairies are perhaps to be preferred, in winter the woods.
The falls and rapids of the rivers flowing into the St. Law-
rence to the east, or ultimately into Lake Winnipeg on the
west, often present the wildest and most picturesque scenery,
displaying every variety of tumultuous cascade, precipitous
cliffs, deep gorges, treacherous and sullen eddies, huge
swelling waves, rising massive and green over hidden
rocks, or quiet and tranquil rivers gliding into lakes.
Viewed under different as;)ects they convey all variety of
impressions to the mind, cold and cheerless in the gray dawn
of morning, pleasing and encouraging as they flash in the
brightness of noonday, or melancholy and depressing as
they silently glitter in the silver light of the moon. Few
enjoyments can equal a bright camp-fire after a hard day's
work in canoes, and no sleep is like the sleep of ti." toil-
worn voyager, on the pine or spruce branches he spreads
for his couch, beneath the cold, clear sky of autumn in tl'
gloom of Lawrentian forests.
A DAY IN THE WILDERNESS.
The dawn of morning when journeying through the
wide and wild rocky ridge which separates the valley of
the St. Lawrence from that of the Winnipeg, possesses
scenes and associations which belong to it^self Kising from
a bed on the hard rock, softened by a few spruce boughs
and a north blanket, the paling stars and the cold, yellow
light in the east first tell that the night is passed. On the
lake a river by which the camp is made a dense screen of
fog rests like a pall. A sudden rush through tlic under-
brush tells of a poor mink or martin prowling close by,
probably attracted by the fragments of last night's meal.
From the dying camp-fires a thin column of smoke rises
THE KOKTH-WEST TERRITORY.
89
higli above the trees or spreads lakewards to join the damp,
misty veil which hides the waters from view. Around the
fires are silent forms, stretched like shrouded corpses at full
length on the bare earth, or on spruce branches neatly laid.
These are Indians; they lie motionless on their backs
completely enveloped in their blankets. Beneath upturned
canoes, or lying like the Indians with their feet to the fire,
the half-breeds, or the French Canadian voyageurs, lay in
wild disarray. All is repose ; the silence is almost oppres-
sive, broken at intervals only by the dull noise of a water-
fall borne on the gentle breath which springs up imperceptibly
with the rising sun. As the morning advances an Indian
awakes, uncovers his face, sits on his haunches, and looks
around from beneath the folds of his blanket which he has
drawn over his head. After a few minutes have thus
passed, not observing his companions show any signs o'
waking or any disposition to rise, he utters a low " waugh ;''
slowly other forms unroll tuemselves, sit on their haunches
and look around in silence. Soon the half-breeds or voy-
ageurs are aroused, the dying embers of the fire blown into
a flame, a few sticks of fresh wood added, pipes lit, and the
day's work begins. The canoes are soon launched and the
baggage stowed away; the party embark and plunge into
the mist, Mdiile no sound but the measured stroke of the
paddle meets the ear. The sun begins to glimmer above
the horizon, the fog clears slowly away, a loon or a flock
of ducks fly wildly across the bow of the canoe, the Indians
shout at the frightened birds, or imitate their cry with won-
derful accuracy, the guide cjills a halt, pipes are replenished,
and the cheerful sunliglit gilding the top of distant trees
brightens, warms, and enlivens all animate and inanimate
things. The day wears on and the breakfast hour arrives,
a short hunt in the woods for rabbits, or in a neighboring
lake or marsh for ducks, rapidly passes the time. As soon
as the meal is finished, all embark again. The voyageurs
i>
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90
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
and half-breeds sing their merry French songs, or the In«
dians chant the war-songs of their forefathers, keeping time
to the regular stroke of the paddles. The banks of the
river are closely scanned in search of game, and the fresh
track of a bear, a moose, a cariboo, or a deer awakens all
the hunter's sympathies, as with suppressed voices they dis-
cuss the number of hours which h^ve elapsed since the
track was made. Supper is the time for enjoyment, aa
lazily lolling round the camp-fires the men, pipe in mouth,
listen to tales of forest life, incident of the chase, hair-
breadth escapes, and distant Indian wars.
A WINTER JOURNEY ON THE PRAIRIES.
Dogs, carioles, sledges and snow-shoes, are required for a
winter journey in the prairies as well as in the woods, but
in consequence of the greater degree of cold in an open
expanse of country, the difficulty of procuring fire-wood
and the scarcity of game, winter traveling in the prairies
is far from being so pleasant as in thick woods where a good
track can be made. Each dog requires daily about two
pounds of pemmican or three pounds of white-fish, so that
the provisions for a train of carioles employing thirty dogs
would involve the carriage of 600 pounds of pemmican or
900 pounds of white-fish for a ten days' journey. A train
of three dogs will draw 300 pounds forty miles a day for
ten or twelve days in succession, if well fed, and the road
is tolerably good over a level country. A winter road, it
may be here remarked, is nothing more than a cariole or
sledge track caused by the pasv^'age of this primitive kind
of vehicle over the snow, and is liable to be obliterated by
every fresh fall. A cariole is constructed of a very thin
board ten feet long and twelve or fourteen inches broad,
turned up at one end in the form of half a circle, like the
bow of an Ojibway canoe. To this board a high cradle,
lite the body of a small carriage, is attached, about eighteen
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
91
inches from the end of the board or floor. The framework
is covered with buffalo skin parchment, and painted or de-
corated according to taste. The inside is lined with a
blanket or buffalo robe, and when the traveler is seated in
his cariole, with outstretched legs, he is only separated from
the snow b/ the thin plank which forms the floor. A
sledge is nothing more than a thin board ten or twelve feet
long, twelve inches broad, and turned up at one end. The
baggage is attached to it by means of buffalo thongs, and
two or three dogs are harnessed to this simple vehicle with
the same materials. The dogs attached to a cariole are
generally decorated with collars, from which beadwork and
tassels are suspended together with a string of small bells.
When a train is in motion the driver runs behind the cariole
0" sledge, guiding it by means of a loop fastened to each
corner of the floor; when tired or anxious to ride he sits
on the small box containing the traveler's baggage, which
is fastened to the projecting board.
A camp is always made in "woods," if possible, for the
sake of fuel and shelter. The first operation is to sweep
the snow from the ground, and prepare a place for the fire
and blankets. This is easily accomplished with snow-shoes,
and as soon as an area proportioned to the size of the party
is prepared, a fire is made sufficiently long to admit of each
man lying for the night with his feet towards it. No tent
or covering of any description beyond a blanket stretched
on poles is admissible, as it would scarcely be possible to
fold canvas in the morning, and time does not generally
allow of tlic erection of a hut, nor are the materials always
at hand. When pine or spruce is accessible, a very com-
fortable floor can be made from the boughs, but in the
prairie country or on its borders these useful trees are rarely
to be seen.
The appearance of the camp during the night, when all
are buried in profound slumber, is very wild and savage.
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62
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
Throwing a few dry sticks into the fire to light up the
scene, the silent, slumbering forms of the travelers are seen
stretched in two parallel rows with their feet to the fire;
between the men, one, two, and sometimes three huge dogs
have crept ; some are lying on the legs of the half-breeds
for the sake of warmth, others have found a snug berth
close to the fire but in imminent danger of burning their
fur, a few lie coiled outside of the circle half-buried in the
snow. The cold is so intense that their faces are white
with frozen breath, and scarcely distinguishable. The fire,
even when in full glow, has not power to melt the snow
more than a few inches from it, without it is exposed to
direct and prolonged radiation. Now and then a watchful
dog raises his head, probably disturbed by some slight
movement of the sleepers ; he looks once round and buries
his face i.gain. Sometimes a dog will utter a low warning
growl, when three or four other dogs, probably old "tagers,
will rouse themselves for an instant, listen and growl, gen-
erally all looking in one direction and snufling the air. A
half-breed sits up, looks at the dogs, observes their mien
and actions, and after a moment's pause, uttering the word
"wolves," he quickly coils himself under his blanket again.
The most disagreeable part of the daily routine of a
long winter's journey is the catching and harnessing of the
dogs. Some of these animals at the beginning of winter,
when fresh at their work for the season, are exceedingly
restive under coercion of any description, and not unfre-
qucntly snap at their masters, who invariably arm them-
selves witli very strong mittens of buffalo or deer liide
when harnessing a savage and powerful animal. They re-
quire long-continued and most severe punishment to make
thorn obedient to the word of command. An Esquimaux
whip is the instrument which every driver should be com-
pelled to use, but the half-breeds trust to sticks and stones,
or any object within reach on the road, which is picked up
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THE NORIH-WEST TERRITORY.
93
as they pass and thrown at the dogs. It is painful to wit-
ness the sudden start of terror with which each animal,
looking over his shoulder as he trots along, watches the
mieu and motions of the driver as he poises the stick,
which he knows how to throw with certain dexterity at the
terrified animals. All the dogs give a simultaneous jump
on one side as the missile flies past them, when directed to
the leader of the train ; and not unfrequently would the
cariole be overturned if it were not for the strength and the
skill of the driver in holding the loop with which he steers
it. When this occurrence takes place and the dogs are at
full speed, the only plan left for the helpless traveler is to
draw his arms close to his sides, and wait until the cariole
is righted by the driver; but any attempt to right the cariole
by putting out an arm is a dangerous operation, which
might occasion a broken limb. In descending steep hills,
it is always advisable to walk or run, which all would pre-
fer for the sake of exercise, except when the road is very
good, and the trains can proceed for many miles at a gallop
without fatigue.
A heavy snow-storm is a serious matter in the prairie.
It is then absolutely necessary for all the trains to keep
close together; the drifting snow soon obliterates the tracks;
and, although the dogs with their exquisite noses v»-ill fol-
low the tracks of the leading cariole even when completely
hidden from view by a light fall, yet when drifts accumu-
late they are at fault.
Preparing to camp in a snow-storm is not an agreeable
operation, or suggestive of that comfort and safety which a
camp almost always presents. When the fire is well lighted,
supper cooked and eaten, and the party "turned in," then
it does not matter much how heavily it snows, the trouble
being reserved for the following day. After a heavy fall
during the night, men, dogs, carioles, and sledges are all
covered with a thick mantle of pure white; a sudden shout
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94
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
from tlie guide enlivens many of the apparently lifeless
forms, recognized only by their ontline; but some of the
sagacious dogs take advantage of the concealment afforded
by the sni^w, and, quite neglectful of the whistles and
shouts of their masters, "lie close."
CHAPTER VII.
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
Canada has hitherto been signally unfortunate in her
different seats of government, in the buildings appropriated
to public departments, and in the residences of her gov-
ernors. Quebec, Montreal, Kingston, and Toronto have
each in turn been the capital of the province. Ottawa has
not yet been tried ; but there is good ground for the expec-
tation and hope that the selection of Her Majesty the Queen
will be found conducive to the best interests of the province,
whatever may be the disappointment felt by cities which
had a history before Ottawa was in existence or even the
great river from which it derives its name thoroughly ex-
plored.
THE OTTAWA RIVER AND VALLEY.
The Ottawa rises near the forty-ninth parallel of latitude
in longitude 76° W. It is about 780 miles long, and 300
miles from its source it passes through Lake Temiscaming,
67 miles long. Above this lake the country drained by the
Ottawa is little known; but below it, for a distance of 430
miles, the river has been surveyed. Montreal River, the
canoe route to Hudson Bay, comes in from the nortli-west,
84 miles down Lake Temiscaming, and, six miles lower
down, the great and almost unknown river Keepawa
plunges into the lake in a magnificent cascade 120 feet in
height. From the long sault at the foot of Lake Temiscam-
ing, 233 mile" above the city of Ottawa, the river is not
THK NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
95
navigable for a distance of 89 miles, except for canoes. Be-
tween the last-named point and Ottawa, a distance of 197
miles, numerous tributaries swell its waters, and one of
these, the Matawan, coming from the west, is of especial
interest at the present time, in consequence of its being on
the line of the proposed ship-canal route between the Ottawa
Eiver and Lake Huron. Above the Upper AUumette Lake
there is a navigaUe reach of water 48 miles in length.
The mountains above AUumette Lake are upward of 1,000
feet in height, and the scenery is magnificent. The moun-
tains on the north side of Colongue Lake are 1,500 feet
high, and the scenery grand and beautiful. The Petewawa,
one of the largest tributaries, 140 miles long, drains an area
of 2,200 square miles; the Black River drains 1,120 square
miles; and, 39 miles above Ottawa City, the Madawaska,
one of its greatest feeders, and 210 miles long, drains 4,100
square miles. Six miles above Ottawa the rapids begin
which terminate in the celebrated Chaudi^re Falls, whose
tumultuous waters plunge 40 feet and partly disappear in
the " Lost Chaudi^re " by an underground passage whose
subsequent outlet is unknown. At Ottawa the great river
receives the Rideau, distinguished on account of its canal
which connects the city of Ottawa with Lake Ontario at
Kingston. Its largest tributary, the Gatineau, with a course
of 420 miles, comes in from the north, and drains 12,000
square miles of territory. Eighteen miles below Ottawa is
the Riviere du Li^vre, draining an area of 4,100 square
miles; below this river there are numerous tributaries vary-
ing from 90 to 160 miles in length. The rapids below
Ottawa are avoided by a succession of canals. One hundred
and thirty miles below the future capital of the province the
Ottawa's waters mingle with those of the St. Lawrence, and
for many miles their yellow, turbid stream can be seen quietly
gliding by the side of the blue waters of the St. Lawrence,
soon to become blended in their onward course to the sea.
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96
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
The valley drained by the Ottawa is 80,000 square miles
in area, for the most part covered with valuable woods, par-
ticularly red and white pine; it is abundantly intersected
with large rivers, and contains a very considerable area of
the best soil. The country is generally beautiful and undu-
lating behind what has b'^en called the red-pine region, and
sustains a growth of maple, beech, birch, and elm. No re-
gion of equal extent enjoys so much excellent water-power
witli such ample supplies of timber and minerals to work
up, or to apply to any kind of manufacture to which water-
power is applicable. It is a region rich in iron, lead, plum-
bago, marbles, ochres, and copper. The valley of the
beautiful and bountiful river is capable of maintaining
without difficulty twice the entire present population of
Canada, or more than 6,000,000 souls. Such is the region
in which the future capital of this vast province is situated,
and where its government will be established. The city of
Ottawa was founded by Colonel By, in 1827, at the time
of the construction of the Rideau Canal. It is situated a
little below the beautiful and curious falls of the Chaudii^re,
and stands upon a high and bold eminence surrounding a
deep bay. Lord Sydenham recommended Bytown (now
Ottawa) as a very favorable situation for the scat of Gov-
ernment of Canada. In 1850 the population was 6,016;
but, in consequence of its being the seat of the lumber
trade, its inl, ibitants have always been of a very transient
description, spending the summer in the town and in fall
hastening far away to the great lumber districts, north,
west, and east, to spend the winter in the glorious forests
which still cover the Upper Country. The present popula-
tion of Ottawa is 15,000.
THE GOVEKNMENT BUILDINGS.
These are three in number, — the parliament-house and
two departmental buildings. They occupy an elevated
'T^'ui^,
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
97
piece of ground, about 25 acres in extent and 150 feet
above the river, known by the name of " Barrack Hill."
The view from this natural terrace is superb. The great
river, with its moving rafts, steamers, barges, and canoes
rolls swiftly on through splendid hill ranges towards the
south. In the distance the succession of bridges which
span the majestic river just above the Chaudi^re Falls,
attracts the eye, even though it be tempted to rest upon the
wild beauty of the cascade sweeping by craggy rocks, be-
tween abrupt islands, and plunging into the basin below,
where part of its waters disappear in the Lost Chaudiere.
Far beyond the beautiful cascade, glitters the broad river,
swiftly rushing down the rapid Des Chenes; and in the re-
mote background rise towering hills and mountains, often
brilliant with purple and gold when the sun dips from view
and gilds their lonely summits with his parting beams.
The buildings are constructed of a light-colored sand-
stone found in the township of Nepean in the valley of the
Ottawa. This material is geologically interesting, as it
comes from the most ancient fossiliferous unaltered rock in
the world, — the Potsdam sandstone. At Lyn, where home
of the stone is obtained, the massive sandstone beds are seen
resting on Laurentian gneiss. The walls are relieved with
cut-stone dressings of Devonian sandstone from Ohio, and
by red sandstone relieving arches from Potsdam in the state
of New York. The roofs are slated with purple and green,
and the pinnacles ornamented with wrought-iron cresting.
The style of architecture is the Italian-Gothic, and the
south front of the quadrangle is formed by the parliament
building, 500 feet in length. The two departmental struc-
tures are 375 feet long. The rear is open and will be railed
off with a suitable ornamental screen. The committee
rooms occupy the front of the building. The library, a
beautiful detached circular building, with a dome 90 feet
high, is in the rear of the central tower, 250 high. The
W
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98
THE NEW PARLIA
DUILDINGS AT OTTAWA.
two legislative halls are on each side of the library, but in
the main building. The dimensions of these halls are the
same of those of the Uouse of Lords, — namely, 80 feet by
45 ; they are situated on the ground floor and lighted from
above. The library is constructed after the plan of the new
library of the British Museum, and will hold 300,000 vol-
umes. The speaker's rooms, and all other offices and con-
veniences required, are judiciously arranged within easy
reach of tlie legislative halls. The speaker's and librarian's
residences are detached buildings and do not necessarily
form part of the main str" cture.
The two departmentf 'Idings contain in the aggregate
300 rooms, and are inttw. to accommodate all the depart-
ments of th< government of the province; and are so con-
structed as to be capable of extension at any future time
without injuring the general architectural effect. The
buildings cover nearly four acres, and some idea of their
magnitude may be inferred from the following brief statis-
tics. The plastering when completed will exceed ten a^res
in extent. The number of windows and doors is aoout
1,200; the length of the cornices, 12 miles; the number of
bricks used, 12,000,000; together with many thousand yards
of masonry, cut-stone work, and much carving and decora-
tions of a similar character.
The architect for the parliament buildings are Messrs.
Fuller and Jones, of Toronto; Mr. Thomas McGreevy, of
Quebec, is the contractor. The architects for the depart-
mental buildings are Messrs. Stent and Laver; the con-
tractors, Messrs. Haycock and Jones. It is quite impossible
to state the cost of these buildings when finished: it is
sufficient to say that up to the present moment, upward of
a million dollars has been expended on them, and they are
still far from being completed.
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
TiTE true appreciation of the progress of any country in
any "branch of its industry depends upon the conditions un
der which that progress has been made: a glance, therefore,
at pliysical, social, and political elements becomes a neces-
sary introduction even to the limited field of its Travel and
Transportatioii. The progress of Canada during the cen-
tury which has elapsed since it became a British colony
practically commenced about eighty years ago, or after the
close of the contest between Great Britain and her revolting
North-American colonics. Out of these eighty years, fifty
at least, embrace the history of two provinces of unequal
ago, and two races, under different laws, language, religion,
and (to a great degree) climates. These provinces have
been hampered by a vacillating Imperial policy, while
struggling for a commercial independence involving compe-
tition along a thousand miles of frontier with one of the
foremost nations of the earth ; — with a people tenfold their
superiors in numbers and wealth, in quantity and variety of
productions, and in the possession of their " treaty-making
power" on their own continent — whereby they have de-
rived manifest advantages in the settlement of every bound-
ary question.
The province of Canada, or of Quebec, by which names Ihe
whole of Canada was called after its seizure by the English,
contained a French population between 60,000 and 70,000 in
number, which, with two exceptions and the few settlements
along the Detroit River, was confined within the bounds of
Eastern or Lower Canada. At Frontenac (Kingston,) and
at the outlet of Lake Eric, the old French forts were garri-
7
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l^auJ^'''
J^Si
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1
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100
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Ml
soned within the boundaries of Upper Canada; but those
which commanded the Niagara and Detroit Rivers were
upon the southern shore. As a colony of France, Canada
was a semi-military organization, without any other exports
than peltries. By becoming English, a privileged market
for lumber and breadstufFs was opened to her in the British
West-India Islands, — particularly valuable during and after
the war of the Revolution, when the Atlantic colonies
were excluded. In 1777 a British officer wrote that " there
are saw-mills and grist-mills all over the province, and the
Canadians are enriching themselves by exporting lumber
and grninrto the West Indies."* This referred, of course,
to Lower Canada; for, though Montreal fell, and a daring
attempt was made at the outset of the Revolution to seize
upon Quebec, the posts upon the lakes, although then one
hundred years old, were surrounded by savages hostile to
the cause of the insurgents. Upper Canada was at that pe-
riod in the possession of the Northern Iroquois, a confeder-
ation of the most warlike of the native tribes ; and there
are those yet living who remember when, — save the few
families around the precincts of the old French forts, — not
a white man could be found over all the vast area of
Canada West. Toronto was then an Indian village whose
warriors speared the salt-water salmon in her harbor, or
chased the deer through the county of York, and their
squaws then paddled among the rice-beds of the smaller
lakes, and threshed out the wild grain over the gunwales
of their canoes.f In the Western Peninsula the noble elk
herded upon the prairies of St. Clair, or roamed over the
oak forests, untroubled by the sound of the settler's axe, and
swam the waters where paddle and screw barque and brig
now plow their busy way. Myriads of wild pigeons from
♦ In 1787, over 200,000 buslicls of wlu-at wero exported from Quebeo,
t III 1705, 400 to 500 pounds of wild rico wore sold by tho Indians in
King8ton market.
the South i
the branch
from the E
ward in e^
turkeys an(
the wild pa
roar of the
every narrc
laborious b
broad meac
successors,
each other.
The achii
colonies ex
had placed
these villifi
mained for
they could i
ful democra'
east maintai
while the fo
Atlantic se
to which th
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the center, r
as fur south
water-tight,
were yet es
eastern rout
joiii those
customs. T
the provinc<
brought abd
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOHTATION.
101
the South annually invaded the beecli woods and bore down
the branches by their weight; thousands of black squirrels
from the East swam the broad Niagara, and marched west-
ward in extended line; while flocks of gorgeously clad
turkeys and plump-breasted quails stalked solemnly along
the wild patli»ways of the forest, undisturbed by the hoarse
roar of the locomotive or the rush of the railway train. In
every narrow valley and upon every living streamlet, the
laborious beaver arrested the rich alluvion and prepared
broad meadows for the flocks and herds of the red man's
successors. The hunter and the hunted have exterminated
each other.
The achievement of their independence by the revolted
colonies expatriated all those whom loyalty to their king
had placed upon the losing side ; and fortunate it was for
these villified and plundered fugitives that there yet re-
mained for them upon this continent an asylum to which
they could retire from the fierce persecution of the success-
ful democrats. The impregnable fortress of Quebec on the
east maintained communication with the mother country,
while the forts of Oswego and Niagara — separated from the
Atlantic settlements by vast forests — were cities of refuge
to which the adherents of the king migint flee under the
guidance and protection of the friendly Mohawk. This
northward emigration penetrated Canada by Lake Cham-
plain on the eapt, by Oswego and Frontenac (Kingston) in
the center, and by Niagara on the west. They came from
as far south as the Carolinas, and their wagon-boxes, made
water-tight, floated the wheels across rivers where no ferries
were yet established. Many of th(>se who entered by the
eastern route moved westward to a milder climate, and to
join those of their own language, faith, and municipal
customs. This sudden influx of a British population into
the province of Quebec — French in all but its allegiance, —
brought about the division into Upper and Lower Canada,
102
TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION.
in eacli of whicli the laws were to be made by the inhiioib-
ants thereof. The separation took place in 1791, at which
time the population of Upper Canada was about 20,000
souls; that of Lower Canada a little over 100,000. The
province of Quebec had been governed by the ordinances
of a governor and council ; but, from 1791, both provinces
were equally endowed with a local legislature, although in
both, the governors selected and maintained their councils
without the acknowledgment that the confidence of the
house of assembly was a constitutional necessity, until their
reunion in 1841.
ROADS.
The development of the Transportation service in any
new country is not more dependent upon the advance in
civilization of its colonists than upon its physical geography
and climate. The possession of capital and a knowledge of
the arts, are, for a time at least, often valueless in the face
of obstacles presented by rapid rivers, mountain ranges,
trackless forests, or quantities of snow. Time is as neces-
sary as money to prepare the way for the superior vessel or
vehicle; and thus, to the European in America, the simple
expedients of the savage indigene are as applicable as the
camel to the desert, the dog-sledge for the Esquimaux, or
the ironless carts of the " Bois Brules" in Eupert's Land.
Although the existence of roads for the passage of
wheeled vehicles dates from the most remote history, it would
seem that their early construction was for warlike or for
state rather than for commercial purposes — for chariots and
trojihies and engines of war; perliaps, also, for the transport
of materials for monuments, temples, &c. The Assyrian
sculptures show that wagons and carts, drawn by mules and
oxen, were used; but their land trade, we know, was prin-
cipally carried on by caravans of loaded camels, horses,
mules, and f»Hses. Wagons were used to bring down the
m
^^ip '"^"IjTn,
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
103
aged patriarch, " tlie wives, and the httle ones " into the
land of Goshen, but their supplies were borne upon the
backs of animals. Egypt and Assyria were rainless coun-
tries, traversed by great rivers, watered by irrigation, and
supplied with numerous canals giving water transportation
for internal traffic. Separated by the mountainous regions
of the Holy Land, their interchange of commerce was best
conducted by the "ships of the desert;" for movable
sand has ever been one of the greatest impediments to road-
making.
The wonderful roads of the Eoraans, carried straight
over hill and dale in such a manner as to be of little service
for wheels, were more military than commercial. Inasmuch
as the Eoman knowledge of road-making was derived from
the Carthaginians, ancient colonists from Tyre, it is p.'obable
that, notwithstanding the obstacles which the rugged land-
scape of Canaan opposed to commercial highways, we may
trace the origin of paved roads to the land where Pharaoh's
wagons were sent when Israel went down into Egypt. In-
deed, it is difficult to conceive how the cedars of Lebanon
could be transported from Joppa to Jerusalem without a
graded road. Two thousand years have not effiiced those
adamantine lines whicli the Romans engraved and inlaid
upon the face of three continents, for some of them are in
use to this day ; and, until the discovery of America, it was
supposed that as road-makers they had no superiors. A
Roman road was often three feet thick, con!--isting of three
courses, of about one foot in thickness each, of coarse con-
crete masonry, gravel, and cut-stone paving: — sometimes
their roads were wholly formed by a species of " macadam-
izing " with the addition of a cement forming a very hard
concrete. Of such roads there were about fifty distinct
ones with an aggregate length of 14,000 miles in Italy
alone, besides those in the provinces.
In point of magnificence, however, the Incas of Peru
1
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104
TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION.
surpassed even the Emperors of Rome. That narrow
fringe of sea-coast was traversed from north to south by two
great roads, — one in the interior, the other along the Pacific
sea-board. The first extended 1,500 to 2,000 miles, having
stone pillars set up at intervals of little more than a league,
and hostelries or caravansaries at suitable distances — in
which respect it was similar to the Babylonian royal road
from Sardis to Susa, as described by Herodotus, which
it exceeded in length. This road, says Prescott, was car-
ried over pathless sierras covered with snow; through
galleries cut for leagues in the living rock ; upon suspension
bridges, swayed to and fro over raging torrents, by cables
of native osier thick as the body of a man ; and was con-
ducted across ravines of hideous depth filled up with solid
masonry. The coast road, about 300 leagues in length,
was carried on an embankment twenty-five yards wide,
with a parapet of clay. Trees and odoriferous shrubs were
planted along the margin, and streams of water were con-
ducted through aqueducts along its side, to slake the trav-
eler's thirst. Both roads were paved with heavy flags of
freestone, some ten feet square, and in some places with
pebbles imbedded in a bituminous cement which made a
road-bed hard and smooth. It was an evidence of their
advanced civilization that persons were stationed at the
Incas' " swing " bridges to collect toll from all passers-by,
for the maintenance of these the only perishable portions of
the work.
ROADS — LOWER CANADA.
The roads of the province of Quebec and of Lower
Canada, until 1832, were placed under an officer appointed
by tlie crown called a grand voyer, a sort of surveyor-
general, who had deputies {sousvoyers) and surveyors under
him.* The roads were divided into three classes.
* This office was filled as early as 1 689 by the Sieur De Beccancourt, ai
■ucoessor to his father who was probably tho first grand voyer of Now France.
:^-^^.
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
105
1. Chemins royaux — Post roads or "front" roads, the
eoil of which belonged to the crown ; these generally trav-
ersed the " front " of the seigneuries.
2. Chemins de ceinture et de traverse — or back roads, the
soil of which belonged to the seigneurs; these ran in the
rear and parallel with the royal roads.
3. Chemins de sortie et de communications— -called, also,
" routes " and by-roads. These were cross-roads, connect-
ing those in front and rear. Also, banal roads, which were
those leading to the seigneury mill.
All proprietors and holders {seigneurs and censitaires)
were obliged to open, make, maintain, and repair, as well
in winter as in summer, their " front " roads, across the
land held by them. All bridges under four (or six) feet
span were to be made by the occupant; but larger ones by
the joint labor of the parties interested, — the timber being
demanded from the nearest property. By joint labor, also,
the cross or b3''-roads and mill- roads were made. In the case
of the front roads, ownership or occupancy was considered
a sufhcient reason for making the unlucky holder construct
and maintain the road; but in the case of side roads and
others made by joint labor, this proprietorship exempted
him from all other contribution, because he furnished the
right of way.- The grand voyer made semi-annual inspec
tions, and by proces verbal, if confirmed by the quarter
sessions, determined the dimensions, ditches, &c., and the
^^ repartition^^ or apportionment of labor on bridges and
routes. lie seems to have been a magnificent personage,
with the powers almost of a provost-marshal, who literally
drove the habitants to the improvement of their ways.
Winter roads in the climate of Lower Canada require
special provisions, some of which are demanded by the ab-
surd tenacity with which the habitant clings to a vicious
system. Instead of profiting by the example of the town-
ship people beside him, he attaches the shafts of his cariole,
m H
106
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
herline, or traineau, the running gear of which is* a low
sledge, by a chain in such a manner that when the draught
slackens the shafts fall on the snow. The runner likewise
does not follow the horses' feet, so that the road is not
beaten for two horses abreast, — and thus must forever
remain an inferior or *' one-horse " affair. The action of
the loose shaft is similar to a horse-rake, and the snow is
rolled into " winrows," giving the road a corrugated pro-
file, forming what are called cahots by the French, and
" cowholes" by the English; the crater between the oppo-
site peaks being large enough to contain one of those
animals. As a penance for thus destroying the road, the
law required the habitant to carry shovel, pick, and hoe,
and to level the track behind him. It is also obligatory to
have the track over ice or open country marked out by
evergreen bushes called halises, so that the traveler may not
lose his way. Besides the ordinary provisions for " break-
ing" the winter roads, it is required that on the 1st of
December all fences along and abutting the roadside within
twenty-five feet, be taken down within two feet of the
ground, and kept down unLil the 1st of April, the posts
only left standing; and, when required, halises are to be
planted every thirt^'^-six feet.
The road question appears to have early. engaged the
attention of the Governor and Council of the province of
Quebec, and an attempt was made to establish the statute
labor system of the English colonics by Governor-General
Afurray in 1766. His ordinance authorized the surveyor
of highways to summon the parishoners with their carts,
horses, &c., to work collectively on the roads, which were
then specified to be at least fourteen feet wide. In 1777
Guy Carleton passed an ordinance establishing the French
system of individual responsibility on the part of each
owner and occupier to keep in repair the king's road, then
specified at thirty feet wide. By-roads twenty feet wide
were to be i
" according
less favored
run in any
of our whi
bridge sleep
sousvoyers w
the caj^tains
ulars the olc
Dorchester i
dinance " t<
but this led
supplies fro I
noxious ord:
was made t
were left in
anteed to th
when Lord '
the constitut
of 1837, to
afler the uni
and one was
district of M
ers have hitl
In 1832,
transferred
roads came u
the labor haf
of apportion
by-law of
t
roa
" front '
occupant; b
Council, ma}
occupant fix
Under that j
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
101
were to be made by joint labor, and banal or mill roads
"according to ancient usage." In that early day, liogs,
less favored tlian they since have been, were not allowed to
run in any highway. In the ordinance of 1777 the value
of our white cedar was recognized by enacting that all
bridge sleepers should be made of it ; and grand voyers and
sousvoyers were appointed for each district, the latter to be
the captains and senior officers of militia. In these partic-
ulars the old French system was followed. In 1788, Lord
Dorchester made a bold attempt to abolish cahots by an or-
dinance " to alter the method of drawing sleighs," &c. ;
but this led to rioting, and the habitants, by stopping the
supplies from country to town, forced the repeal of the ob-
noxious ordinance the following year. No further attempt
was made to interfere with the cahots, and the habitants
were left in undisturbed possession of an institution, guar-
anteed to them by the articles of capitulation, until 1840,
when Lord Sydenham took advantage of the suspension of
the constitution of Lower Canada, caused by the rebellion
of 1837, to pass two sleigh ordinances; but immediately
after the union, the right of self-government was asserted,
and one was repealed ; but the other was confined to the
district of Montreal, where the turnpike trust commission-
ers have hitherto successfully resisted the traineau.
In 1832, the despotic powers of the grand voyer were
transferred to road commissioners; and in 1841 the
roads came under the control of the municipalities, by whom
the labor has been more equalized, and who have the power
of apportioning it upon all roads. In the absence of any
by-law of the municipality or unrepealed proccs verbal,
" front " roads are still to be made and maintained by the
occupant; but a special superintendent, appointed by the
Council, may, by proper proccs verbal, relieve any owner or
occupant from any excessive portion of work required
under that provision. All the main roads, made by the
%%'
I 111
III
108
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
government and transferred to the municipalities, are to be
maintained by the latter. Front roads must (since 1855)
be at least thirty-six feet French (nearly thirty eight and a
half feet English), and routes twenty-six feet French (about
twenty-seven feet nine inches English,) between the fences.
This is an increase of fifty per cent, over the width estab-
lished before the conquest.
The old French laws governing the roads were practica-
ble in the level seigneuries, with their peculiar subdivisions
caused by the laws of descent, as well as from their quon-
dam semi-military orgc^w-.zation. The holdings are narrow
strips of one or two hundred yards, or less, fronting on the
St. Lawrence, and extending back a mile or more. The
front road is near the river, and on it are the houses, giving
the river bank the appearance of a continuous street.
These laws were, however, wholly inapplicable to the
townships with their hills, and lakes,- and heavy timber,
where the " front" road would run a mile or more along
one property, and where the cost of making the road would
be far greater than the valuf^ - .' the land ; where, also,
there were crown reserve? • i h)ng distiinces without an oc-
cupant. The p ' "1' their roads formed, for
perhaps a cer
snow in wi
urgent for grants; nU the townships thus had no op-
portunity for log-ro^ aig," and were too weak politically
to extort relief. It was therefore not until 1815-17 that
any effort was madf to apply a j^jortion ^ their abundant
revenue to the roads and bridges of lower province.
The Lum of £63,600 (or $254,400) w jted in these two
years, which was expended chiefly in i seigneuries. In
1829, however, the legislature seems to i ive commenced in
earnest, about £120,000 (or $480,000)^ having been voted
in that and the two succeeding years; and then the town*
«»hips, after forty years of suffering, obtained some assistance
their lij^ht traihc on the
er in summer, were not
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
ROADS, UPPER CANADA.
109
in the first parliament of Upper Canada, held at Newark
in 1793, an act was passed by which the roads were placed
under overseers to be appointed by the rate-paying inhab-
itant householders at their annual town meetings. Every
person was required to bring tools and work three to twelve
days; and owners of carts and teams at least six days. At
first rich and poor were treated niike (for all were alike
poor,) and the number of days' work exacted from each,
which \/as in the discretion of the overseer and depended
on his energy and the wants of the road, was fixed at ten ;
but when large blocks of land, granted to favorites or held
by speculators, stood in the way of improvement, dissatis-
faction was created at the unequal road law which exacted
no more from the great land-owner than from the tenant or
laborer, and it was altered; the number of days' labor
being determined according to the assessment roll.
The power of altering or opening new roads was vested
in the quarter sessions by whom a surveyor was appointed
to report upon any application for such alteration or new
road if signed by twelve freeholders.
In its infancy this province had neither revenue nor
taxes, the civil list being at first wholly and afterwards par-
tially sustained by the military chest of the Imperial gov-
ernment. In 1795, the revenue was £900 sterling, and the
only tax 4c?. per gallon on wine; and it was not till 180-i
that there appeared any surplus for roads. In that year an
appropriation of £1,000 (or $4,000) was made for this pur-
pose, which proved premature and was repealed in 1806,
when £1,600 (or $6,400) was granted; and this rc)ad grant,
increased to £2,000 (or $8,000) and £3,000 (or $12,000,)
was annually maintained till 1812, when it rose to £6,000
(or $24,000.) Interrupted two years by the war, it in-
creased in 1815 to £20,000 (or $80,000,) and in 1816 to
£21,000 (or $84,000,) aftei which little was done until
>il»ii
110
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
1830, when, between that date and 1833, £128,000 (or
$512,000) were granted. Between 1836 and 1840 over
£100,000 (or $400,000) more was granted, the whole of
which was not expended until after the union.
Tiie roads of Upper Canada, by the municiijal act, arc
wholly under local control; and the assessment act provides
that every male between sixteen and sixty years is liable to
statute labor to the extent of two days as a minim.um. If
assessed at a total valuation of £50 (or $200,) two days are
required, and more in propo. «ion up to £1,000 (or $4,000,)
which gives twelve days; and one day for every £200 (or
$800) over that sum, sul)ject to a pro rata reduction by the
council. Where there is no by-law, 2s. Qd. (or 50 cents)
per day is the rate of commutation. When there is no
property delinquents may be imprisoned six dayt^ if they do
not work their two days or pay their two dollars. The
roads mu:=-b not be less than thirty feet or more than ninety
feet vvide; and local rates may be levied for local roads, on
a petition of two-thirds of the resident rate-payers repre-
senting one-half the assessed value. Councils can not close
a road to the prejudice of any person, nor encroach on
gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds, or buildings; but they
may urder the removal of trees, not being ornamental or
plantations, within twenty-five feet of the highway, and
must compensate for all real damage.
PROGRESS OF TRAVEL.
In the province of Quebec, the European system of
traveling by ])ost was in force and regulated by law. The
distance between Quebec and Montreal, commonly called
sixty leagues was divided into twenty-four stages. The
mailres de poste were obliged to keep four caleches and four
carioles, and to be ready at a quarter of an hour's notice to
forward the traveler, who was usually received with much
ceremony, on alighting after each stage, by the lady of the
m
I'W^^rt ^
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Ill
house.* They had the exclusive right of passenger trans-
port by land, the charge being fixed at twenty to twenty -five
cents per league, — twelve to fifteen dollars for thn iourney
between Quebec and Montreal, which occupied three days.
The caltche is a gig upon grasshopper springs with a seat for
two passengers; the driver occupies the site of the dash-
board, with his feet on the shafts and in close proximity to
the horse with which he maintains a confidential conversa-
tion throughout the journey, alternately complimenting
and upbraiding him, and not failing to impress him with the
many virtues of his master.
A public mail-stage was established between St, John's
and Quebec before the expiration of the last century ; but
although facilities existed for land travel before the era of
steamboats, the water route, where it was down stream or slack
water, was generally preferred. Water carriage along the
whole frontier from Quebec to Lake Huron, and abundance
of snow (east of Kingston) while the navigation was closed,
checked the early establisiiment of a good road throughout.
Before the war of 1812, the land route from Montreal west-
ward was broken, not only by the necessary ferries across the
0 tawa at Isle Perrot, but by the long ferry in Lake St. Fran-
cis, where a horse-boat traversed the slack water, because of
the wet land route along the front of Glengary. In 1796, with
the exception of about fifty miles, a road had been opened
from Montreal to Kingston, and the journey could be made
by land from Montreal to Lake St. Francis, and from Corn-
wall to Prescott, along which latter route the United Empire
loyalists, who cam,e in in 1784, had established themselves.
The intermediate portions, having slack water cr nearly
so opposite them, were not completed until the neccsbity for
them was demonstrated by the war of 1812-15.
* Tlu) maitres de jwsle vmvQ first recognized by law in 1780, and sonio half a
dozen ordinnnces and acts were passed in thoir favor or to coJitrol them be-
tween that date and 1819, when their privileges oeasod.
1
1
1"
112
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
During the infancy of Upper Canada the road extension
from Prescott to Burlington, — with the exception of those
portions where the loyalists were settled, which extended as
high as the Bay of Quinte, — was retarded by the slack- water
navigation between these points; but to avoid the detour by
Queenstor., Fort Erie, and Lake St. Clair, a road was opened
as early as 1794 from Ancaster (the point to which the loy-
alists had extended their settlements from Niagara, and
made their road by private subscription) to the Mohawk
village on the Grand Eiver, to which place Brant had
removed his Six Nations. From Brantford it was carried
through to a point (London) on the river La Trenche (now
called the Thames,) from whence a boat navigation existed
to Lake St. Clair. Thus, from the French seigneuries on
her eastern boundary to the American border on the west,
Upper Canada sought first to connect the natural navigation
by what may be called portage roads of greater or less
length ; and so to diminish the time, cost, and fatigue of
land transport.
Governor Simcoe, who seems to have been fully impressed
with the importance of his mission as the founder of a na-
tion, also opened out, in 1794, by the labor of the Queen's
Eangcrs, the portage of thirty-three miles from Toronto to
Lake Simcoe, called Yonge Street, which shortened and
cheapened the route to Mackinaw, then the great d^'pot of
th' fur-trade. On the opening of this route the North-
"W est Fur Company, which was established by Frobisher
and McTavish, of Montreal, in 1782, and which in 1796
employed 2,000 men, instead of sending their supplies up
the Ottawa by canoes, sent batteaux up the St. Lawrence,
which were carted across the portages at theCarrying Place
and Yonge Street, .'ind delivered their cargoes in Mackinaw
at a saving of £10 (or $40) to £15 (or $60) per ton. Even
the Spanish settlements down the Mississippi were supplied
by British goods thus taken to the great peltry fair at Mack
s*^"^.
iS'it,
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
113
inaw. Dundas Street, as the main post-road traversing the
province was called, was also established by Governor Sim-
coe, lots being granted along it on condition of building
and improving in one year; and so provision was made for
a continuous land communication throughout the province:
but it was not until after the war of 1812 that any portion
of it was so far improved and bridged as to become a stage
route.
The first stage in Upper Canada was established by Mr.
Macklem, of Chippewa, in 1798, between Queenstown and
Fort Erie, running every other day at the moderate fare of
one dollar; distance about twenty-five miles. On the 1st
of Jt.uuary, 1816, the first stage betweeji Montreal and
Kingston was established by Barnabas Dickinson. Covered
sleighs left Samuel Hedge's, in St. Paul Street, Montreal,
and Robert Walker's Hotel, Kingston, every Monday and
Thursday, and arrived every Wednesday and Saturday. In
January, 1817, Samuel Purdy established the first stage be-
tween Kingston and York. It left Daniel Brown's inn,
Kingston, every Monday morning, and York every Thurs-
day morning, stopping at Spaulding's inn, Grafton, as a
halfway house. The fare was eighteen dollars with twenty-
eight pounds of baggage allowed. The next winter Purdy
reduced the ftirc to ten dollars, three dollars to Belleville,
and six dollars to Spaulding's inn. On the opening of nav-
igation the stages between Prescott and York were discon-
tinued, as a steamboat was then on this route. The mail,
which as late as 1807 was so light as to be carried by pedes-
trian white nicn between Montreal and Toronto, and by an
Indian between Toronto and Niagara, all of whom carried
axes to aid them in crossing streams, went by the king's
vessels in summer, and after 1817 by the steamers, which
also took the local trallic between the frontier towns; so that
there was no travel to maintain a summer stage except on
the portages below Preseott. The first steamers were placed
i
I'
[i- !
114
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
on Lake St. Francis and Lake St. Louis, in 1826, when four-
horse covered coaches w^ere put on the road between Mon-
treal and Lachine, and stages were run from the Cascades to
Coteau Landing, and from Cornwall to Prescott, no steam-
boat having yet ventured below the latter point. In 1832,
a stern-wheel steamer, the Iroquois, was built to overcome
the rapids between the Longue Sault and Prescott. At
first she required the aid of horses and oxen at Rapide
Platte; but further experience in pilots and an improvement
in the boilers enabled her to ascend by steam power alone;
and thereafter the stages retired to the twelve miles of por-
tage passing the Longue Sault between Dickinson's Landing
and Cornwall. ,
Between Kingston and Cobourg, and other points where
the steamers did not call, at first a horse, and then the one-
horse wagon delivered the local mail; and, as local travel
incrcas(>d, two and four horses were put on, the vehicles
generally being open stage-wagons, the covered coaches be-
ing kept in tlio vicinity of the larger towns where the roads
were bottei- and where it was worth an effort to " take in "
the unwary. As late as 1834, passengers in stages from the
west could avoid "sea" sickness on Lake Ontario by con-
necting with steamers at the " Carrying Place," at the head of
tlic Bay of Quinte, from whence there is river navigation to
^fontreal.
In 182f), the first stage was established between Niagara
and York, — time, seventeen hours; fiire, five dollars. In
1827, the exclusive right to run a stnge for twenty-one
years from Ancaster, through Brantford, Burford, "the
Long Woods," and Delaware, to Detroit IWver, was ob-
tained, after two years' effort, by a public-sjiirited physician
of St. Catherine's, for the purpose of inducing other parties
to provide this much-needed accommodation. Under this
Btimulus, a lino of fourdiorse coaches was started in 1828,
which not pnying it was reduced to an uncovered wngon,
CAUIOLE.
IIAIUTANT, LOWKK CANADA, DUIVINtt A CALfcdIli
) i
"a
I
)
' ; 11
' i
■ 1
i
i
m
^1
1
ti:
iiJiiMU*iMi.»*^
1l*
I
and after a
years after tl
Ontario and t
line was estr
done in con
ner's require
Benjamin
America in
of Commons
tween Montr
tended eastwj
Kingston
only quarterl
with a mail-b
Our progre
established pc
Dates.
176G,
1791,
1817 ,
1824,
1828
1831
1832,
1836,
1837,
1810,....
IH.'il,
1852,
18r.4
18r)7,
1860,
In 1852, th(
the revenue,
the number ol
nue, $658,451
is exclusive of
costs $110,00(
B
r«v^-">y|
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
115
and after a time even that was abandoned. It was some
years after this before a stage was established between Lake
Ontario and the Detroit Eiver, and not until 1842 that a daily
line was established throughout the province, which was
done in consequence of Deputy Postmaster-General Stay-
ner's requirements with regard to the mails.
Benjamin Franklin, Deputy Postmaster-General of North
America in 1766, stated before a committee of the House
of Commons that the only post-road then in Canada was be-
tween Montreal and Quebec. In 1791 the post-road ex-
tended eastward to New Brunswick, and westward as far as
Kingston. As late as 1807, the mail to Amherstburgh was
only quarterly, a Canadian once in three months appearing
with a mail-bag on his shoulder.
Our progress, as gathered from the number of miles of
established post-roads, is as follows: —
Dates.
1766,.
1791,.
1817,.
1824,.
1828..
1831,.
18.32,.
1836,.
1837,.
1810,.
18.51,.
1852,.
TTiimber Miles of MilfS of
of Established Annual
Post-offices. Post-Uoadfl. Mail Travel.
3 170
10 600
25 1.200
69 1,992 369,616
101 2.368 455,936
151
227
289
375
405
601
840
2.896 713,076
3,460 787,472
4,377 1,005,,524
5,370 1,176,708
5,736 1,473,264
7,595 2,487,000
8,618 2,930.000
18.")4 1.166 10.027 4,000,000
1857, ] ,506 13,253 5,383,000
1860, 1,698 14,202 5,712,000
In 1852, the number of letters per annum was 3,700,000;
the revenue, $230,629; expenditure, $276,191. In 1860,
the number of letters per annum was 9,000,000; the reve-
nue, $658,4:51 ; expenditure, $534,681. This expenditure
iscxclu.sive of railway and steamship subsidies. The former
costs $110,000 and the latter $416,000 per annum.
w k
y|U*ii*i^**'
116
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
PROGRESS OF ROADS.
The land communications of the copper-colored nomads,
eastward of the prairies, were natural routes subordinate to
their water ones, being mere portages from one stream or
lake to another; and in this respect they differed essentially
from those of a fixed population. But, as with the savage,
the track of the wild animals, — the deer, moose, elk, or
cariboo, — indicated the hardest ground or lowest pass for
the war-path, so with the colonist the same guides — or the
instincts of domestic animals turned loose in the forest,—
often marked out the "bridle-road," the pioneer route of land
transport from point to point. In later times, since the sur-
veyor has preceded the settler, the roads have been either
arbitrarily determined for a country presenting no special
obstacles, or carefully explored as a basis of settlement.
But as, "until a comparatively recent period, the squatter
preceded the surveyor, the original roads have been estab-
lished either by the accidental conditions noted above, or
by the more extensive and careful explorations of the lum-
berman, who has been the pioneer of the agriculturist over
the greater portion of cultivated America.
The progressive stages of improvement, from the track
of the wild animal to the metalled road, are, —
1. The Bridle Road;
2. The Winter Road;
3. The Corduroy Road;
4. The Common or Graded Road;
6. The Turnpike; Macadam, Gravel, and Plank Roads.
BRIDLE AND WINTER ROADS.
Before the era of wheeled vehicles, communication be-
tween back settlements, save in winter, is restricted to
" bridle roads," by which men and women on horseback
may assemble for worship, visit their neighbors, and attend
upon all those occasions of births, marriages, and deaths so
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION'.
117
much noticed in the forest and so little in town. On pack-
horses, also, grain is taken to and from the mill, and other
movables transported. These roads are formed simply by
clearing away the branches and logs, so that a man on
horseback may ride, and are most frequently old lumber-
men's roads, which have become impassable from fallen
timber, and the growth of underbrush. In winter, how-
ever, the snow and ice, the great democratic elements in the
physical constitution of Canada, make all roads alike, and
the humblest settler in the most remote back-township has not
only an excellent road, but can make himself a vehicle capable
of transporting the largest loads; and, sheltered by the forest,
the once broken track is protected from those drifts which
are the only drawbacks to the snow-roads in the clearings.
It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of the
frost and snow to the people of Canada, or to place any
money value upon them. That which most Europeans
have deplored as the only drawback to this country is
in truth the source of its rapid prosperity. The operations
of agriculture and commerce do not necessarily require
perennial communication with a market. As there is but
one crop of grain and lumber in the year, it is suffi-
cient if onc€ in the year an opportunity is afforded
to transport it, and this Canada possesses in a higher
degree than any other " more favored clime." In the
dead of winter, when all agricultural out-door operations
have ceased, the farmer, after having threshed his grain,
can sally forth to any market he may select, even if distant
one hundred miles or more, and combine other business or
pleasure in the town with that of the sale of his products.
He can go any where while the snow lasts, for all roads are
alike; and he can take as large a load as can be transported
by the same power on the best wheel roads in Europe.
For domestic purposes the ice and snow are equally valuble
to him; for, while unable to cultivate the fields, he can make
;ii
1: !
118
TRAVEL AND TUANSPOKTATIONk
the forest resound with his axe, and every swamp is accessiblo
to his horses and his sledges; thus becuring his annual sup-
ply of fuel without the necessity of money or barter. If
he has a family of grown-up sons, he may cut the timber
and fuel and transport it to the market, because there is not
a week in the whole winter in which out-door work is un-
pleasant; and there is, therefore, less loss of time than, in
milder and more rainy climates. The presence of the ice
and snow at the season when horses and cattle and their
owners can not be employed in field operations, and its cer-
tain continuance over the greater part of the country for
several months, define the mode of conducting the business
without inconvenience and to the best advantage. What-
ever is intended for export is, where good summer roads are
wanting, hauled down to the shipping ports while the snow
lasts; and if a house is to be built, the stone is quarried
and hauled wnen little else can be done, and all preparations
are made before the season for building commences. The
statistics of shipments show that only about one-third of the
crop is sent forward in the year in which it is grown ; and
although in many instances the produce can not be brought
out until the snow falls, it is evident that from choice the
greater part will be held back until that season. The
autumnal plowing and sowing after harvest, ditching, fenc-
ing, and other duties, often make it inconvenient to com-
mence threshing before the winter: moreover, there is also
the hope that better prices, when western exports are
suspended, and cheaper transportation on the snow, will
more than compensate for any loss of interest.
The frost which bridges every river and makes a hard
and level causeway of every swamp, with the snow, which
fills ^ery rut and cavity and buries boulders, logs, and
stumps, enable the lumberman to send supplies for a whole
year to his shanties; and, in like manner, the pioneer settler
takes advantage of this season, to prepare for his summer's
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
119
work of establishing a home in the heart of the forest. It
is only by contrasting this state of things with India, the
Turkish Empire, or other snowless and roadless countries
of the world, that we can determine what it is worth to
have, as Canada has for months in every year, the best pos-
sible road, not only on all main lines, but to every man's
door and to every corner of his property.
The winter road is too narrow for wheeled vehicles; in
summer it is but a bridle road on the hard ground, and im-
passable through the swamps.
CORDUROY R0AD9.
In forming a road for wheeled vehicles or in convertmg u
winter road into a summer one, there are necessarily as
many degrees of excellence (or rather badness) as are
afforded by the character of the route, — the number, wealth,
and intelligence of the settlers. But, whatever the means
at their disposal, there seems to be a universal resort to the
axe and log-chain, where the pick and shovel should be used.
This wide-spread error is the result of habit: axes are in
the hands of all, and familiar to all ; the pick and shovel
are regarded as only fit for " canallers " and railway
" navvies." Not only in the case of swamps (in many of
which the corduroy system is indispensable), but wherever
water at stated seasons collects on the surface, so as to soften
the soil and cause the wheels to sink, whole hecatombs of
trees are sacrificed to form a corrugated causeway of their
round trunks, laid side by side, over which wagons can be
slowly dragged or bumped, any attempt at speed being
checked by immediate symptoms of approaching dissolution
in the vehicle. When the country becomes cleared most
of these vegetable causeways remain high and dry through-
out the year, from the mere admission of sun and wind;
but though no longer of any service, the logs are too often
permitted to remain, because, half-buried as they are, the
120
TRAVEL ASD TRANSPORTATION.
laborious and plebeian occupation of digging is required to
extract tliera. It must, however, in justice, be admitted
that in many cases where simple ditching would be better
and cheaper than the corduroy, the latter can be done while
the former can not, for want of tools or of time, at the pro-
per season of the year. Where the foundation is a morass
the corduroy is a ready and efficient mode of constructing
a road; and, though most disagreeable to the traveler, and
peihaps destructive to his vehicle, it is often impossible for
the scattered settlers to do more. The captious visitor from
oldc^r districts ma}'' grumble at the roads over which he is
obliged to travel, but a liberal mind will acknowledge the
formidable obstacles which the early settler must contend
with, and not expect that, in addition to the war waged on
the wilderness to obtain bread for his family, he can devote
much of his labor to the common benefit. If, therefore,
perhaps after 3^ears without any summer road at all, he can
procure a passable one only, it is natural he should wait for
assistance before attempting more. The great objection to
the indiscriminate resort to corduroy is that many roads are
kept in the worst state many years longer than they would
be had they been left without this questionable improve-
ment. As the settlement increases in numbers and wealth,
and the evils of corduroy are appreciated, an attempt is'
made to cover the logs with earth, by ditching from the
sides when practicable, or by the more expensive process of
hauling the material from the extreme ends. But where
there is not a morass beneath the logs, the frost penetrates
and throws them up through their scanty covering, and
there can be no rest for these ghosts of the murdered trees
until they are wholly removed or buried the " full fathom "
deep.
THE COMMON OR GRADED ROAD.
This is that stage which has emerged from the bridle,
winter, or corduroy to the condition of a highway marked
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOUTATION.
121
out by fences in the clearings or by wide openings tlirough
the woodland, — formed, drained, and bridged, with logs ex-
tracted or effectually buried, and hills graded down within
reasonable limits; but without any other road-bed than that
afforded by the underlying or adjacent soil. These roads
are excellent in midsummer and midwinter, and (except
when broken up by frost in spring and autumn) are seldom
surpassed, even by the turnpike, except for the heaviest
traflic. The common road as it becomes consolidated is
better for the horse and more agreeable to the traveler than
any other, and, except where in loose sand, affords facilities
for travel and transport during the summer months only
inferior to those of the winter ones. Their chief defect is
in their Eoman straightness, following the concessions or
side-lines of the original survey arbitrarily, and encounter-
ing obstacles which might easily be avoided. Land-owners
attach importance to straight and rectangular boundaries as
more easily ascertained and maintained, and therefore op-
pose propositions to have their fields encroached upon to
improve the road. Although the bail of the pot is no longer
when on the fire than when off — when upright than when
horizontal, — it does not seem to be conceded that it may
often be as short to go around the hill, upon the level, as to
climb over it. The value of level roads is demonstrated in
the highest degree by the locomotive, which, upon an ascent
of only one in one hundred, can not draw more than one
fourth the load which can be taken on the level. The act
of parliament only requires hills to be reduced to one in
twenty on toll roads and railway crossings, and we often see
them one in ten or less on other roads. If the principles
of transportation were moi'e thoroughly appreciated, all our
main routes would be improved by abandoning locations
which can never give a good road, and by avoiding, as far
as possible, all hills, particularly those which are to be
ascended in the direction of the heaviest traffic, thus making
t '
»"i"*»r?"
i
12i
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
1 ■.,*
Mm
the road towards the market as far as possible, down hill.
The reflection that millions in number and in value must,
until the end of time, travel over the roads, perhaps as we lay
them out, should secure the utmost carefulness and consci*
entiousncss in the location of all our highways, railways in-
cluded, so as to avoid the unnecessary loss of time and
waste of horse-power and steam-power now going on daily
over all this continent.
TURNPIKE ROADS.
Gravel Roads. — The existence of large deposits of gravel
at many points, and the fact that the natural roads upon a
gravel formation were the best, led to its being used exten-
sively lor metalling graded roa( > s. For light traffic it makes
a smooth and hard road ; but it is not, as usually applied,
capabl 3 of resisting the heaviest traffic. If sufficiently clean,
and laid on to a proper depth, it will form a road fit for any
purjjose; but so formed, it, in the majority of cases, will be
more expensive than broken stone.
Plank Roads. — These were introduced after the union,
and were extensively used at first; but as a class they may
be said to have proved foi lures, except as a temporary ex-
ped'cnt. In many districts where there is neither stone nor
gra^^el, and where plank abounds, they have been the only
means of f.ocommodating a hcfvy traffic, and are particu-
larly valuable where the natural road-bed is sand. Sand,
except when frozen or covered with snow, is almost as
great an obstacle to t;-affic as swamps; and plank, although
a perishable, is an expeditious and generally economical
mode of overcoming it. In many cases it will pay to lay
down plank in order to cheapen the cost of putting metal
on the same road ; and, as the plank will last several years,
the tolls collected in that time may reimburse the cost.
Where lumber is cheap and where stone can not be obtained
near the road, it will be policy to make th^ first covering
of the grad(
been devised
notice these,
there is little
their form;
wear them dc
through, and
gravel is wi
second time,
out, and unle
durable road.
Macadam .
experience in
over any oth(
much impair(
repairs, and 1:
idly to consol
proper size a
sand (and th(
avoided excej
thus two or
" bound." T
worn out, wl
years are con
tem, with sc£
The only proj
roads in the p
are the turnp
These roads i
tolls are free!
to wear out, t
kept in good (
the roads are
companies wh
TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION.
123
of the graded turnpike with planks. Many plans have
been devised for laying the planks, but it is unnecessary to
notice these, as their duration does not depend on this. '*'
there is little traffic they warp and rot without re^'jrence to
their form; and if there is much traffic the horses' feet
wear them down : and when thus weakened they are broken
through and soon become a nuisance. When stone or
gravel is within reach, plank should never be laid the
second time, unless the tolls re])lace them as fast as worn
out, and unless there be a lack of means to make the more
durable road.
Macadam Roads. — This system, after about forty years'
experience in Europe and America, has proved its supei iority
over any other; but its value in this country has been very
much impaired by inattention to details in construction and
repairs, and by the want of a sufficiently heavy traffic rap-
idly to consolidate the new road. The metal, often of im-
proper size and inferior quality, unless " blinded " with
Band (and thereby deteriorated) or covered with snow, is
aA'^oided except for a short time in spring and autumn; and
thus two or more seasons are passed before it becomes
" bound." The repairs are then postponed until the road is
worn out, when it is again renewed en masse; and thus
years are consumed in the infancy and old age of this sys-
tem, with scarcely an intermediate period of efficiency.
The only properly constructed and managed macadamized
roads in tlie province, with perhaps one or two exceptions,
are the turnpike trusts outside of Montreal and Quebec.
These roads are in the hands of commissioners, and as the
tolls are freely expended on them, they are never allowed
to wear out, but by constant repairs with clean metal are
kept in good order. In Upper Canada, on the other hand,
the roads are generally in the hands of lessees or stock
companies whose practice it is to lay out nothing upon them
/ ■'■
124
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
which can be avoided. There is no stronger instance of
the patience and law-abiding disposition of the people than
in their toleration of so great an imposition as most of the
toll-roads of Upper Canada. It matters not whether a com
pany has purchased the right of way, cleared the forest,
fenced, " graveled," and bridged a road, or whether it has
thrown down stones or plank upon an old highway made
ready for them at the cost of the public, — the traveler (who
has perhaps exerted all his skill in driving between the
loose stones and broken planks and the ditches, or in
" straddling " the ruts) is arrested every four or five miles
by a toll-gate. In winter toll is exacted even if sleighs
are used, which can only be defended on the ground that
some revenue must be had; but in summer there is not this
relief, although it would be safe to say that, for the greater
part of that season at least, the roads would be much more
efficient in their natural state than they are as " improved."
Such roads have no resemblance to the turnpike trusts of
Lower Canada, except at the toll-gates; and the continuance
of so great a nuisance as barriers on even the best of roads
must be regardc^d as evidences of a preference on the part of
the most intelligent population of Upper Canada for direct
taxation. It may be argued that those who wear out the
road should pay for keeping it in order; but this might be
met by an annual assessment on hoofs and wheels without
the intervention of toll-gates. If the cities and mai'ket-
towns assumed tlie tolled roads, they have it in their power,
by fees, market-rates, &c., to levy the amount required;
and there would thus be bodies interested by their mutual
competition in keeping the roads permanently in good
order. This, however, "s one of th' vso reforms which wc
can not hope to attain until wc are i\xr enough advanced
to thick of fencing our animals in instead of fencing them
out,
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION.
ROAD POLICr.
126
The provision for roads in many of the townsliips of
Upper Canada is excessive. The usual dimensions of the
lots are a quarter of a mile in width and a mile and a quar-
ter in I'Tigtii, containing two hundred acres; and in some
townships, in order to give every lot frontage on a highway,
road allowances sixty-six feet wide, running from front to
roar, have been reserved every half-mile. The concessions
(which are reserves of a similar width) divide each tier of
lots so that they occur at intervals of every mile and a
quarter; thus the lots may be halved, and each hundred
acres, front and rear, will have a road allowance upon two
sides of the property. In townships of unbroken, and dry
land the roads become established upon those allowances;
but in many cases, intervening; obstacles force the road
through private property, where it remains on sufferance
until (from the permanent character of the obstacle) it is
duly established by authority, when it is enlarged to
the regulated width and the " statute labor " expended on
it.
Befo/c the union of the provinces, and the establishment
of municipal institutions in 1841, considerable amounts
were annually granted by the Legislature for roads and
bridges. These were in fact almos'. the only public works
prior to the era of can.als and railways and public debt, and
absorbed the greater part of the net revenues. This system
still obtains in the lower colonies, and their main roads are
unsurpassed, as a class, by those of any other government
on tliis continent. Aid from the public chest was generally
restricted to trunk lines and bridges beyond the means of
local taxation oi " statute labor ; " but, by judicious "log-
rolling," as the barter of vote for vote between members is
called, tliis aid became so widely disti-ibuted and the num-
ber of chiimants so increased as to force the leaving of
SIT
j-^^' ■
126
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
road-m;iking wholly in the hands of the localities, except
in ihe case of new roads for settlement, or where large
areas of public land remained unsold. The dissatisfaction
created by the apportionment of the road moneys was one
of the arguments in favor of municipal institutions which
have since relieved parliament of applications on account
of what may be called local roads. While there is little
doubt that it was high time the old, rich, and populous
districts should no longer abuse their greater political
strength to secure for their own doors the lion's sluire of the
road moneys, it is equally clear that, in bc'ng thrown upon
their own resources, a load has been imposed upon many of
the back counties which they are unable to bear. It may
cost one county, by reason of numerous large rivers, deep
ravines, jwamps, &c., ten times as much to make its road)-^
as it costs another more favorably situated ; and the more
broken the country the less good land and the fewer the in-
habitants, so tliat the tenfold expenditure fidls upon a pop-
ulation only one-tenth of that in the older front counties.
Again, the back counties conti'il^ute so much to the werdth
of the front ones, that the latter may with justice be abkeJ
to share a burden from which, by the natural fr rmation
of the district, the labors of their fathers, or from paat
government aid, thi^y are comparatively exempt. Honest-
ly administered, the system which prevails in the low-
er coloni('s, and which once existed hero, is at least tlie
most equitable ; and it ca)ii only be docried by tlie con-
fession that there is not public virtue enough to sustain
it.
The proceeds from sales of the -jrown lands and the rev-
enues derived from the valuable timber thereon, do not ac-
crue to tlic municipalities in which these may be situated,
and as there seems to bo a natural claim upon tins fund for
roads in the same district, the provincial treasury which re-
ceives may with reasonableness be asked to give. This
Shorinpf the ar
Turnpike Iruati,..
TRAVEI. AND TRANSPORTATIO».
127
principle has been recognized by the government of the
United States, which, in organizing new states, made pro-
vision for roads out of the proceeds of the public lands sold
in each state ; and is acknowledged by us as respects what
are called Colonization Roads.
STATGMGNl'
Sho ving the amount expended by the Legislature of Upper and Lower Can-
ada, respeetivoly, fiom 1791 to 1861, for Roads and Bridges; also, the
amount expended since the Union by Municipalities and Road Companies,
in the construction of Turnpike Roads :
ExPBNnsD BY Upper Canada :
General (grunts for roadt
(.id bridges.
Bpecial npproprintiona
for roads
Speciil .ipprijjrrintions
foi bridges, (5U) . . .
CrnnL* for colonization
rundi,
Roads biiil'. by mi>nic:i
palitiesuiidjoinlsiock
compunies,
Comman
Roadt.
Mila.
Mncadflni
Rnadi.
Milet.
.714
.938
•1,302
.137
FUnk
Roads.
mia.
.135
Cost
Before Union.
Cost
Since Union
$763,200.00
..753,466.65
...13,456.00
1,529,123.65
Gencrni grant for roads
and bridges,
283 104
Total, Upper Canada,
£XPUNDBD EY LOWBII CANADA!
782,24000
$1,392,707.00
. . . .91,537.75
.. 528,739.21
4,366,522.00
6,379,505.90
Total Cost.
.8762,200.00
2,146,173 65
,. 104,993.75
,. 5.:rf,739.31
4,366,522.00
7.908,028.61
G|)eciiil nppropriniions
for roads
Special npprcprintinns
for bridgCH, (32). .
Grants for colonization
ronds,
Turnpike trusts
Roads built by niiinici-
piilities nod joint stock
cunipbnios, (nn r-ilurn)
.893
,1,537
22
.P34
8
....SI
230,380.00
21,500.00
m
Total, Li'wer Canada,
Grand Total, Upper and Lower Canada,....
780,711,19
218,909.00
44n,7e6.32
425,365.79
. . 782,240.00
1,011,091.19
. . 240,409.00
.. 440,786 32
. 425,205.73
1,034120.00
2,.'=n:!,«'-',2.05
.. so,niio.o<''.. 20,000.00
l,89l,6'^2.2;j
8,271,178.19
2,925,792.23
10,834,420,84
" Uraveled roadi only, on nearly all ot which lulls are ccilleclnd.
I
M
Mi!' H
t
128
TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION.
The Plank, Gravel, and Macadam roads of Lower Can-
ada were nearly all constructed by Parliamentary grants.
This road expenditure of $10,834,420.84 excludes those
made by statute labor or commutation money ; and all mu-
nicipal outlay on common roads.
The colonization road expenditure in Upper Canada in-
cludes that from the Improvement Fund, — applicable to
new townships.
TABLE
Of Plank, Gravel, and Macadam Roads constructed by municipalitiea and
Joint Stock Companies in Upper Canada, since the Union.
Counties.
PUnk
Road.
No. MUa.
Gravel
Road,
No. MUa.
Macadam
Road.
No. Milel.
Total
No.Milei.
Total Cost.
Brnnt, (no return.)
37
37
. . $37,000.00
... 12,000.00
Cnrleton, (no relnrn,)
6
6
Klpin
42
42
. . . 84,000.00
Frontennc, Lcnno.Y, und Addington,
106
166
177
.. 318,(M)0.00
Grey,
177
. . 200,000.00
none.
60
Ilnlton
60
.. 100,000 00
9
94
103
.. 191,300.00
177
177
. . 462,400.00
Kent,
14
19
3
33
. . 66,0(10.00
Ltiiiibtoi],
18
21
. . . 42,000.00
Lanark nnd Kenfrew, (no return,)
Leeds ruid Grenville,
.... iiaj
.. si27,'848()6
Lincoln
20
.52
153
.. 127,,')00.00
Middlesex
11
142
. . 600 UOO.OO
Norfulk, (I'lnnk nnd firnvel,)
88
.. 140,000 00
229
.. 4!I2,000.00
8
8
... 12,000.00
Oxford,
11
112
101
134
....1364
101
. . 2,').5,.")I10.00
I'crtI
. . 20U,4.')7.00
6
6
... 12,000.00
Prcscott nnd Russell,
none.
200
,
200
Stntntelnlior.
Sinicoe. (no return,)
6
5
11
... 22.000,00
Stnrmont, Dundos, and Glengary,
24
4
28
1
. . . 60,000.00
1
.... 'J.(l( 10(H)
Wellnnd,
28
28
82*
.. 111,877.(10
Wellinpton
82.\
.. ] 62,640.90
Wentwortli
13
12J
46
71*
Hi
.. 194.(HH).0(I
York and Peel, (no return,)
Ill
. . 222,000.00
Totol
194
1,302
2,834
2,277
4.366,.522.00
Note.— Coat ia eatiinated where not given, and known roaoa are inaerted in cnaea where n*
return woa tnade.
■pap
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
WATER COMMUNICATIONS.
129
The pliysical geography of Canada, presents a marked
contrast with respect to rivers and water communica-
tions, to that of the States of the Union. The Mississippi
and its numerous tributaries are navigable, at some seasons
of the year, from their mouths almost to their sources ; but
the St. Lawrence and its branches are beset, a little beyond
tide-water, with rocky barriers to navigation which are re-
peated at varying distances — generally with lakes or long
deep reaches intervening. The proportion of water navi-
gable in both directions to that of rapids, chutes, and cata-
racts is, however, so great, that for purposes of transporta-
tion the St. Lawrence presented to the early explorer less
obstacles than the Mississippi, — the upper waters of which
were first reached through the great lakes, by Jolliette and
Marquette in 1673, and by Hennepin in 1680. Between
Quebec and Chicago — a fresh-water navigation of 1,450
miles, — the total length of canal is only sixty-eight and a
half miles: and in the proposed improvement of the Ottawa
navigation, out of a total of four hundred miles between
Montreal and Lake Huron the length of canal is only
thirty miles, about one-third of which is upon the Island of
Montreal itself. On this latter route, — by which, the Algon-
quins avoided the Iroquois, and which afterward became
the highwa}'- of the voyageurs of the fur companies, — a few
miles of portages constituted all the land carriage required
between Montreal and the centre of the continent. In the
later operations of the lumberman the long reaches of
level road upon the ice of the Ottawa, and of its lakes and
tributaries, have carried the supplies into the inmost recesses
of the forest.
This terracelike profile of the northern rivers is not with-
out its ameliorating influence upon the temperature daring
the two or three short periods of intense cold which occur
ill
!■
1.
"BP'rfU
I, i
!■ i
■^lidi*M
130
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION*.
in a Canadian winter. "While a thick covering of snow re-
tains heat in the earth for the protection of vegetation, and
when the lish retire to the shelter of the deep water in
the ice-covered lakes, the open area at the rapids affords the
principal outlet for radiation, — which increases with the in-
tensity of the frost — and at these points an almost constant
congelation in the form of " anchor ice " upv.n the bed of
the stream, sets free an additional supply of latent heat.
Another peculiarity of the Canadian navigation is its
great directness. From the Straits of Belle Isle to the head
of Lake Erie, the St. Lawrence affords a navigation almost
upon an air-line; and from Montreal to the western extrem-
ity of Lake Superior, the Ottawa gives a route nearly
direct. The Mississippi and many of its tributaries, on the
other hand, double the air-line distance between their cities,
and oppose an almost uniform current to ascending craft.
While hatleaiix could be dragged up the rapids and sail up
the St. Lawi-ence in ten or twelve days from Montreal to
Lake Ontario, and there transfer their cargoes to schooners,
it required four months to pole a keel boat up the Mississippi
from New Orleans to St. Louis; and it was not until the
successful invention of the steamboat that the western
rivers could be commercially navigated, and thus have
their fertile valleys opened to the immigrant.
The river St. Lawrence — that greai; aorta of the province
of Canada, waich drains an area of half a million of square
miles, and opens a highway for ocean borne vessels from
the Atlantic fully two thousand miles into the interor, or
more than lialf-way across the continent, — has ever been a
base-line of operations in those struggles, both military and
commercial, which have taken place between the rival races
and rival offshoots from tlie 'jarne race in the New World.
Its two incjst important branches, the Ottawa and the
Richelieu, were, on account of their great directness towards
the AVcst and South, their slack-water, and the greater de-
pression in
Algonquin a
none the less
our own tin
sweeping the
Gulf of Me.^
level at the
a direct line
tion of the s;
charges in a
by means of
feet above ti
connecting it
A subsidence
along the lin
tion between
of New Eng
The progrc
rivers are —
The Bark (
The Battea
The Barge
The Horse-
The Steam'
To which — fc
Bail-crafl requ
The Bark
aborigines is <
for travel and
igation which
improve upor
fiiiled, and it :
man for asccn
0
p^^.'^^
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
131
pression in their valleys, favorite tliorouglifai es of the
Algonquin and the Iroquois, and theso characteristics are
none the less important to the commercial requirpraents of
our own time. The Appalachian chain of mountains,
sweeping the curve of a great circle of the earth from the
Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence, is cleft to the ocean
level at the Hudson Eiver, and only there. Almost in
a direct line north of tbis river, and apparently a continua-
tion of the same fissure in the chain, Lake Champlain dis-
charges in an opposite direction, into the St. Lawrence,
by means of the river Eichelieu. Tliis lake is only eighty
feet above tide water, and the summit level of the canal
connecting it with the Hudson is only fifty-five feet liighcr.
A subsidence, therefore, of only one hundred and fifty feet,
along the line of this valley, would open salt-water naviga-
tion between Montreal and New York, and make an island
of New England and the Lower Colonies.
PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION.
The progressive stages in the navigation of the northern
rivers are —
The Bark Canoe:
The Batteau ;
The Barge or Durham Boat;
Tiie Horse-boat;
The Steamboat ;
To which — for the lakes — may be added every description
Bail-craft required in ocean navigation.
The Bark Canoe. — This primitive vessel of the northern
aborigines is one of the most useful and economical vehicles
for travel and light traffic upon a broken and sheltered nav-
igation which can possibly be devis'^d. Every attempt to
improve upon it, by substitution of tin or otherwise, has
failed, on(l it is to this day the favorite craft of the lumber-
man for ascending or descending the tributaries of the Ot-
9
1 ' ' '
"' ii
,iV;N
M^ ''
..iiMi^'
. !*=■
i) »
182
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
tawa, where no summer roads are found. In size they range
between nine and thirty feet — one and a half to five fathoms,
as the measurement is usually given. The smaller size will
only carry one person, with a small stock of food or neces-
saries to trim the ship; and as one person can easily carry
it, a considerable journey with numerous portages may be
made solus wherever there is a foot of water in the stream.
The larger canoes will carry twenty-five to thirty men, or a
cargo of three tons, and when loaded draw two feet of water.
The frame-work consists of numerous single ribs or laths,
bent like an ox-bow, and terminating in the gunwales; all
which, with the bow and stern-post, are made of white
cedar {Thuya occidentalism) the lightest and most durable
wood our forest affords. The few bars which maintain the
opposite gunwales in situ are of maple, elm, or ash — cedar
not being strong enough — ^but they are attached, through
holes bored in their ends, by a seizing of young roots, (in-
stead of Vieing framed in,) so that they can readily be
replaced. The sheathing is the bark of the white birch
{Betulu papyracea,) more durable than the cedar itself, (al-
though that lasts as long as the owner,) sewed together and
lashed to the gunwale with the fine, tough, and durable
filaments which form the young roots of the spruce, and
which are prepared by boiling. The seams are payed with
a pitch composed of resin and tallow, which makes them
water-tight; but often the raw gum of the forest tree id
used. Thus it will be seen that with the exception of the
cross-bars, so easily replaced, there is no perishable wood in
the bark canoe; and they are lighter for their tonnage than
any other craft of equal strength. Being very elastic they
will stand a good deal of rubbing on boulders or water-
worn roMks not sharp enough to cut them through; and if
damaged the adjoining forest affords the means of repair.
The largest canoe requires a crew of six to eight men, but
can be carried by one-half this number; and it is on'y with
TRAVEL AND IftANSPORTATION.
133
the larger sizes that more than one of the crew is needed to
carry the vessel over the portages. At night the canoe in-
verted affords shelter from rain and dew.
The bark of the birch-tree forms the covering for the
wigwam or hunters' camp — gives utensils in which flour is
kneaded and water boiled — is the papyrus on which the
Indian pioneer sketches with native plumbago hieroglyphics
(which are left in cleft sticks at the portage landing) for the
guidance of his following tribe — and makes the resinous
torch for lighting the portage, the camp, or the night-fisher's
spear; while the gi'cen wood from which it is stripped
burns as readily on the camp-fire as the dry of any other
tree.
The BatteaxL — When the extent and regularity of the
traffic called for some more improved means of transport,
the batteau — a large, flat-bottomed skiff, sharp at both ends,
about forty feet long and six to eight feet wide in the mid-
dle, and capable of carrying about five tons — was substi-
tuted. Sometimes they were confined to a particular reach
of water; in other places they were, with the aid of ropes
and windlasses, men and oxen, dragged up the shallow
rapids ; or were unloaded and carted across the portages.
They were provided with masts and lug-sails with about
fifteen feet hoist, an anchor, four oars, and six setting-poles
shod with iron, and a crew of four men and a pilot. With
forty barrels of flour on board they drew only twenty
inches of water. Their great merit was in their entire
adaptation to the work and to all conditions of the route.
They could not be capsized in the excitement of a rapid,
while their light draft enabled them to creep up along
shore; nor could the flat bottoms be easily damaged on the
water-worn rocks. When coasting along the shore of the
great lakes, if the sea became too rough they could be
hauled up and inverted to afford shelter like a canoe.
Though by no means models their light draft and displace-
i ;.
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
ment and their sharp bows made them tolerable sailers and
not difficult to row.
In the last century the batteau was used, almost exclusive
Ij, on the inland waters. Although ships of four hundred
tons then came up once a year to Montreal, and although
there were, as early as 1795, three merchant vessels on Lake
Ontario of from sixty to one hundred tons, which made
cloven voyages in the year, (besides the six king's vessels
which carried the mails, troops, and passengers,) the batteau
was still used for purposes of travel and light transport
fi'oni Quebec to York. Passengers from Montreal went
down with the current to Quebec in a batteau having a sec-
tion covered with cloth stretched over hoops, forming a sort
of cabin ; but came up by land to save time. From Mon-
treal westward there was no choice; the passengers were
obliged to camp on shore at night, and shot over the adJQin-
ing woods while the crew were toiling up the rapids. This
state of things continued until the introduction of the steam-
boat and the completion of the land road.
llie Durham Boat was introduced after the war of 1812
by the Americans, and adopted to a considerable extent by
the Canadians, the object being to combine the light draft
of the batteau with better sailing qualities and greater ton-
nage capacity. They were flat-bottomed barges with keel
and center-board, and with rounded bows; eighty to ninety
feet long and nine to ten feet beam, with a capacity about
ten times that of a batteau, or about 350 barrels of flour,
down ; but, in consequence of the rapids and want of back
freight, they brought only about eight tons up, on the aver*
age. The commencement of agricultural exports and con-
sequent increase in Lho downward tonnage, after the war,
called those boats into existence; for, though unable to
carry u full load up the stream, they could bring up enough
to moot tho demands of llu^ route, — the proportions between
the down and up freights having materially changed from
l::
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
135
those in 1795-1800, when the batteaux bringing up pro-
visions from below for the new settlers and taking down
peltries as the only export, were equallj' loaded both wa3'3.
Sail Vessels. — The French traversed Lake Ontario jn sail
vessels two hundred years ago, and in 1679 La Salle
laiuK'hed the Griffin, above Niagara Falls, in which he
sailed to Lake Michigan; but nothing more pretentious
than a batteau or open boat was constructed, for commercial
purposes only, previous to 1790. It was not until 179(3
that any vessel bearing the American flag was afloat above
Niagara Falls. She was a British built, 75-ton sloop, pur-
chased from the North- West Fur Cornpanjr. The Simcoe
was the first commercial schooner on Lake Ontario. She
was built at Simcoe Island about 1793, by the North West
Fur Company, and was commanded by Henry Murncy, who
built the second vessel, the Prince Edward, in 1798, at the
Stone Mills on the Bay of Quinte. In 1795, three merchant
vessels were engaged between Kingston and Queenston.
Merchandise was taken up and furs and skins brought down,
and this trade then employed as many as fifty to sixty
wagons daily on the portage around Niagara Falls. Still,
however, the batteau coasted along the north shore, and it
was not till after the war of 1812 that the Carrying Place
was al)andoned — because communication was maintained
by the Bay of Quinte while Lake Ontario was in possession
of the enemy. Government schooners first commenced
carrying passengers through Lake Ontario in 1791 : the
fare was only two guineas, wines included, which, as the
voyage nn'ght last a week, was very moderate.
The Cherokee, a Canadian vessel, built and sailed by Cap-
tain Gaskin, was the first lake craft which crossed tiio
Atlantic; and the Dean Kichmond, from Chicago, in 1855,
was the ilrst iNmcrican vessel which entered into the direct
trade with Europe, A Lake Erie vessel, from Cleveland,
in 18-49, went out of the St. Lawrence and around Cape
136
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Ilorn, with passengers, &c,, for California. The first Eng.
lish vessel which reached Chicago from Liverpool was the
Madeira Pet, in 1856.
The following table shov;s the fluctuations in the Cana-
dian lake marine in the last ten years. The decrease since
1857 is owing to the insane efforts of the Grand Trunk
Railway to rival the water route, the only result of which
has been to ruin the boat owners and exhaust the road.
The vessels arc, however, in existence, and their highway
needs no repairs or renewals. They are, therefore, re-ap-
pearing on the scene, no longer in danger from their worn-
out and exhausted antagonist.
BTATEMENT
I'i
Of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels built in Canada from 1850 to 1861 ;
distinguishing those at Quebec and Gasp^, which are chiefly sea-going, from
those at inland ports.
Year.
1850,..,
1851...,
1852,..,
1853,..,
1854,..,
18.')5,...
1856,..,
18.57,..
1858,..
18.59,..,
I860,..,
18G1,..
, Saimno Vessels
Quebec am\ Gaspe. Inland Ports.
No.
, 65
. 65
, 48
. 80
, 72
. 73
, 80
. 65
. 50
. 43
. 55
. 53
Tonnage.
31,204 .
41,505 .
28,003 .
51,124 .
46.993 .
32,001 .
36.765 .
38,592 .
20,326 .
14,997 .
22,426 .
, 26,737 .
No.
11
12
14
56
32
40
46
45
35
20
14
32
[onnage.
876 ,
1,144
1,403
7,272
4,829
7,702
4,819
, 5,788
, 4,234
1,.579
1,102
5,295
Quebec.
No. Tonnage
. 8
. 3
. 4
-Steamers —
8
6
8
3
8
3
3
2
839 . .
3 ..
150 ..
1 ..
572 ..
5 ..
. .
2 ..
518 ..
8 ..
933 . .
18 ..
485 . .
14 ..
173 ..
13 ..
697 . .
9 ..
285 . .
3 ..
354 . .
2 ..
223 ..
9 ..
Inland Ports.
No. Tonnage.
300
1,1 39 J
674
1.715
2,335
3,270
2,383
1,980
175
111
932
The Horse-Boal. — This vessel, adapted only to short and
sheltered ferries, may be considered the true forerunner of
the steamboat — which latter is an extension of the system
on a larger scale and with a vastly superior power, but in*
volving a different mechanical arrangement between the en-
gine and the paddle-wheels both of which were compara-
tively old — the engine having been in use efficiently for ovef
As soon as
the first Hon.
troduce stean
A small expe
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
137
thirty years on land, and the wheels on the horse-boat, h&
fore they were brought together in the steamboat.
Boats of this description, worked by four horses, were
established on the Niagara Eiver in 1793, at Fort Erie,
Queenston, and Niagara; and, even as late as 183-1, one was
put on the ferry across Toronto Harbor. But now steam has
almost everv where relieved the noblest of animals from the
worst of the many forms in which he has been doomed to
suffer in the service of man.
The Steamboat — It is generally conceded that the steam-
engine was first invented by the Marquis of Worcester, in
1663; but it was an atmospheric engine, usually more
costly than horse-power, until taken in hand by Watt in
1765. AVilliam Symington succeeded in applying an engine
to a boat, so as to obtain a speed of five miles per hour, in
1788, and seven miles per hour, in 1789; but, neither of
these proving serviceable, he built the first practicable
steamer the Charlotte Dundas, in 1801, and set her at work
on the Forth and Clyde Canal ; but the swell caused by her
paddles proving injurious to the canal banks, she was laid
up. Fulton visited Symington, who "fired up" the Cliar-
lotte Dundas and gave him a trip at the rate of six miles
per hour. He requested and obtained permission to take
notes — Symington, who was protected in Great Britain, ap-
pearing iudillcrcnt to any use which might be made in
America of his labors. Fulton thereafter proceeded to the
United States, and, securing a patent, launched the Clermont
hi 1807, having wisely taken the precaution to import tlie
engine from Boulton and Watt in England. The Clermont
commenced her trips regularly in 1808, and was the first
Bteamer applied to any regular purposes of transport.
As soon as this demonstration was made on the Hudson,
the first Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, determined to in
troduce steam upon the route between Quebec and that city.
A small experimental i)oat was built at Montreal called tha
1 1
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isH
i
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f;f
.LiMjiiL
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mm
138
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Accommodation, said to have been only about forty tons,
with seventy-five feet keel and eighty-five feet length on
deck, the engine of which was made at the ancient works
at Three Rivers. After various alterations in the boilers,
she set out, on Wednesday, the 1st day of November, 1809,
at 2 P. M., for Quebec, which she reached on Saturday
morning, the 4th, at 8 A. M., — having been thirty hours at
anchor. Her running time, with the current, therefore, was
thirty-six hours, and her average speed under five miles per
hour; but it is stated that her time to Three Rivers was
twenty-four hours. She had berths for twenty passengers,
at that time, but brought only ten to Quebec ; the passage-
money down was ei.Q:ht dollars, and up, nine dollars. She
was propelled by *' open double-spoked perpendicular
wheels, without any circular band or rim." Her return to
Montreal occupied a week or more ; and, although she was
kept on the route in 1810, the adventure was a serious loss
to Mr. Molson, who determined nevertheless to persevere.
In 1811, he proceeded to England and ordered an engine
from Messrs. Boulton and Wact, and commenced the hull of
the Swiftsure for its reception. This boat was completed,
late in the season of 1812, in time to be of much service
during the war which commenced in that year. The first
passenger steamer in Britain was only established in that
year, so that, in emplojnng steam navigation, the colony was
not behind the mother country.
Immediately after the peace of 1815, sevcrnl gentlemen
of Kingston determined to introduce steam navigation upon
Lake Ontario; and on the 7th of September, 1816, the
steamer Frontenac was launched at the village of Ernest-
town. She was one hundred and fifty feet keel, one hundred
and seventy feet over all, thirty feet beam, and twelve feet
depth of hold; her wheels were thirteen feet in diameter,
her draft of water when loaded eight feet, and she was
rated at 7-12 tons. The machinery was imported from Eng*
land, an
$28,000.;
men of i
was own
of the C
zie, and,
1817, we
ton, for
from Kii
route wa!
ports, to
thence, v
the same
Steerage
selves. I
pounds,
in the ri\
ers, who
Kingston
on the la
In Au<
called th(
ciates, of
trial trip
whether i
has not b
which w(
to navigii
intercstin
The N
incorpor?
vote of 7
that it w(
if Fulton
had some
i
s
■1
I
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
139
land, and tbe contract price for tlie hull was £7,000 (or
$28,000.) The Frontenac was pronounced " the best speci-
men of naval architecture yet produced in America," and
was owned by respectable merchants and other inhabitants
of the Count y. She was commanded by Captain Macken-
zie, and, after making her trial trip, on the 30th of May,
1817, went on her route in June from Prescott to Burling-
ton, for which distance the fare was eighteen dollars; but
from Kingston to York it was only twr' /e dollars. Her
route was advertised from Prescott, touching at the river
ports, to Kingston, Ernesttown, Newcastle, and York;
thence, via Burlington Beach, to Niagara, returning over
the same route, — the round trip requiring about nine days.
Steerage passengers paid three dollars and "found" them-
selves. Cabin passengers paid extra baggage over sixty
pounds. Having touched, it is said not unwillingly, a rock
in the river on her first attempt to go to Prescott, her own-
ers, who were interested in maintaining transhipment at
Kingston, withdrew from the river navigation and kept her
on the lake.
In August, 1816, a small steamer of two hundred tons,
called the Ontario, owned by Mr. Charles Smith and asso-
ciates, of Albany, was launched at Sackett's Ilarbor. Her
trial trip is said to have been made in April, 1817; but
whether she traversed the lake before the Frontenac or not
has not been established. These were the first steamboats
which were tried, out of river navigation, and the attempt
to navigate the lakes by them was then looked upon as an
interesting experiment.
The New York Legislature n^fused, in March, 1816, to
incorporate a steamboat company for Lake Ontario, by a
vote of 75 to 49, on the ground, as was stated at the time,
that it would facilitate trade down the St. Lawrence; but,
if Fulton's right extended to the lakes, that fact may have
had something to do with the defeat of the measure.
In 181J
from the s
between ]
river boat
dersleeve
nac) for a
Johns, Di
these two
transporta
the King8
flection tl
are calcuL
that the p;
exclusive
legislature
to grant 1
measure v
£17,000, J
Hon. Jno.
spent in c
and river.
The eel
land in 1
pulsion o
class now
lakes,
dians.
The wl
now upon
132,327 t(
are Cana<
uation of
The m:
ment to tl
wa.-
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
141
In 1818, tbe Cba:^loItf, a river steamer, was launched
from the same yard where the Frontenac was built, to ply
between Prescott and Carrying Place. She was the first
river boat in Upper Canada, and was built by Henry Gil-
dersleeve (who was also the assistant builder of the Fronte-
nac) for a committee consisting of Smith Bartlett, Solomon
Johns, Daniel Washburn, and Peter Hetsel. Although
these two boats held almost a monopoly of lake and river
transportation, the future was so doubtful to the editor of
the Kingston Gazette^ that he consoled himself with the re-
flection that " whether they prove profitable or not, they
are calculated to promote the public good." It was said
that the p^-oprietors not only sought government aid, but the
exclusive right of steam navigation, — a right which the
legislature of Lower Canada had more than once declined
to grant to Mr. Molson. The fate of the Frontenac in a
measure warranted these fears; for, although she cost about
£17,000, she was sold in 1825, at auction, for £1,550, to the
Hon. Jno. Hamilton, of Kingston, whose whole life has been
spent in developing steamboat transportation on the lake
and river.
The celebrated Swedish engineer, Ericsson, while in Eng-
land in 1837, successfully applied the screw to the pro-
pulsion of vessels. In 1841, the Vandalia, the first of a
class now numbering over one hundred and twenty on the
lakes, was built at Oswego, and afterwards sold to Cana-
dians.
The whole number of steamers, propellers, and tugs
now upon the lakes is 863, with an aggregate tonnage of
132,327 tons, and a valuation of $5,576,000. Of these, 100
are Canadian, having a tonnage of 30,511 tons, and a val-
uation of $1,397,000.
OCKAN STEAMERS.
The magnificent subsidy awarded by the British govern-
ment to the Cunard line had the effect of diverting Canadian
\ ,
■l
■
\
|:;n
.1.
\
f >IH
^'^H
■+■ i
iM
yylyy^L
wmm
142
TRAVliiL AND TRANSPORTATION.
traffic with Europe from the St. Lawrence river tluougb the
ports of Boston and New York. The policy of the Imperial
government, which tended to build up American seaports at
the expense of Canadian, left the colony no other resource
than competition. On the 13th of August, 1852, a contract
was entered into between the commissioner of public works
of Canada, and Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co., a Liver-
pool firm, for the term of seven yeais, by which a line of
screw steamers of not less than 1,200 tons carpenters' meas-
urement, 300 horse-power, and capable of carrying 1,000
tons of cargo besides coal for twenty-four daj's, were to
commence running between Liverpool, Quebec, and Mon-
treal, in the spring of 1853, once every fortnight during the
season of navigation, and to Portland once a month ; the
outward passage not to exceed fourteen days, and i\\i
homeward passage thirteen days. The maximum ra>:e of
freight to be charged was 60s. per ton. Fourteen tri;)3
v/cre to be made from Liverpool to the St. Lawrence and
back, for which at least live steamers were to be provided;
and five trips to Portland and back, for which three steamers
were required. The vessels were all to be ready and to
commence their fortnightly service on or before the 1st of
May, 1854; and a sufficient number to be ready and to com-
mence the monthly trips in the spring of 1853. The price
to be paid by the province was, for fourteen fortnightly
trips to the St. Lawrence, £1,238 Is. lid. sterling per trip.
The Grand Trunk Railway was to pay £336 6s. 8d. sterling
for each monthly trip to Portland.
In October, 1852, Messrs. McKean, McLarty k Co. formed
a provisional company under the title of the " Liverpool
and North American Screw Steam-Ship Company," and pe-
titioned the board of trade for a royal charter, with limited
liability. In this they were vigorously o.nc. successfully op-
posed by the Cunard company, and g-''nerally by British
ship-owners not protected by limited liablity, and were
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
143
compelled to attempt the formation of their company under
a Canadian charter.
Under this contract, the Geneva, a small steamer of 700
tons and 160 horse-power, was sent out in 1853, — the first
transatlantic screw steamer which entered the St. Lawrence.
The Lady Eglinton, 600 tons and 160 horse-power, and the
Sarah Sands, 1,200 tons and 150 horse-power, followed;
these boats made five trips only in 1853. The aver^ige
voyage; out was fourteen to twenty-two days, and home
twelve to eighteen days; and 80s. freight, instead of 6O5.,
was charged. In consequence of this total failure on the
part of the contractors, the government of Canada annulled
the contract, and on the 28th of September, 1855, a new
one was entered into with Hugh Allan, of Montreal, to
commence in April, 1856, and give the same time and num-
Der of trips as before, but with vessels not less than 1,750
tons builders' measurement, and not less than 350 horse-
power. The subsidy was £24,000 sterling per annum, and
a penalty of £1,000 for every trip lost was provided for,
besides the deduction of a pro-rata amount of the subsidy.
Tlie contract was terminable by the contractor, at the end
of any year, by giving six months' previous notice. Al-
though t' e line was not remunerative in its first season,
1856, the contract was fulfilled in the most satisfactory
manner, the outward passage being U7ider thirteen days,
and the homeward a little over eleven days.
The inefliciency of a semi-monthly line, especially for
postal purposes, in competition with the subsidized line to
Boston and New York, led to a revision of the contract in
1857, by which a weekly service to the St. Lawrence com-
menced in May, 1859, at a subsidy of $220,000 per annum.
In April, 1860, a new contract was entered into with Mr.
Allan, to continue in force until the 1st of January, 1867,
for a weekly line between Liverpool and the St. Lawrence,
and in winter Portland. All the vessels, except the Anglo-
!{
ill
I
I );1
IX':
i,-)!,--; la
> K !
W:l'
w litas
1
1
iri:
m
«
144
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Saxon, Canadian, and North American, to be not less than
2,800 tons builders' measurement, with not less than 500
horse-power. Under this arrangement the ships must call
at any port in Ireland which may be selected. The average
passages in 1860 were twelve and eleven days, instead of
fourteen and thirteen, the contract time. The subsidy is
$-116,000 per annum; the penalty for every trip not per-
formed is $5,000, bts3ides the contract value thereof; and the
contract is terminable by the contractor on giving six
months' notice, but by the government only in case of de-
fault. The doubling of the subsidy was in consequence of
the losses of the company in the first year of the weekly
line, in which two of their steamers, the Indian and the
Hungarian, were lost in the Atlantic, en route for Portland,
while off the coast of Nova Scotia.
In the winter of 1859, the Canadian steamships for
Portland commenced to call at Cork, receiving supplemen-
tary mails, with letters written in London after the steamer
had left Liverpool; but as Cork was not suited to the St.
Lawrence route, Londonderry was selected for the Irish
port of call, and the first voyage, stopping there, was made
from Liverpool on the 30th of May, 1860. The day of de-
parture from Liverpool was also changed, in July, 1860,
from Wednesday to Thursday, taking an extra day from the
Cunard line, which leaves on Saturday.
The Canadian line, in 1860, carried 620,000 letters be-
tween the United States and Europe, and received $101:,
6-11.68, trom the United States' post-office, for this service.
Previous to the arrangement of 1859 and 1860 the claims
of the British and American post-offices, for packet and
transit charges on Canadian correspondence with Europe,
averaged $165,000 per annum; but, after 1860, they were
reduced to $50,000 — the difference of $115,000 per annum
being the amount accruing to Canada from the transport of
her own European correspondence.
This lin
five of its
Indian in '
Briton in
rence and
can be la
steamer 1(
lighthouse
an incom]
arrival.
The fol
pacity, &(
LIVERPO
AND
LONDOND]
LINE.
North America
An^lo Snxon, .
Nova t'cotian,.
Bolipmiiin, . . . .
Iliberninn, ....
Norwegian, . . .
Jura,
New ship, biiili
The no
approxim
times the
a marked
the gross.
There {
to Glasgc
visited M
The St,
the very ;
tively s
1
w
TRAVFL AND TRANSPORTATION.
145
This line has been unfortunate, in the loss of not loss than
nve of its steamers in four years, — the Canadian in 1857,
Indian in 1859, Hungarian in 1860, and Canadian and North
Briton in 1861. Of these losses, two were in the St. Law-
rence and three in the Atlantic, and of the former only one
can be laid to the dangers of the navigation, as the first
steamer lost was run ashore almost under the lamps of a
lighthouse in full view, and on a bright, calm evening, by
an incompetent pilot, who had assumed the control on her
arrival.
The following table shows the principal dimensions, ca-
pacity, &c., of the Canadian ocean steamers : —
MONTREAL OCEAN STEAMSHIP COMPANY.
3
03
p
Draft of
Ton nape
•fl
o
i?
rp
fa's
>.
9
g
re
TO O
re ;=
3 5"
' 5'
•c
3
9
"1
LIVERPOOL
"A
s-
e
2.
o
Water.
Measiirc't.
(5
in'
§o
■a
3'
g_
n
o
5:5
re 3
3 "A
5
Is
~o
a c
Il
n
5'
AND
LONDONDERRY
r
ES
1
O
o
f
32
■'1
a
•
^
o
o ->
re 1
■ =!
n
LINE.
•
•
1
'.
^
3 n
■"4
o
re
i
1
North American,
2Tfi
35
11
19;J
I'T&I
1-137
1-000
250
45
11
75
100
2.50
Anpio Piixon,
2T()
[in
11
11)^
1-784 ll(i5
1-000
2,50
45
II
75
KM)
250
Novn Heotian,
29*2
■.i^
13
-H
22.50 1-187
1-2.10
3(HI
50
10
<K)
l-,'0
:i.50
Holicniiiin,
2! 12
:t8i
13
21A
2-2r>()
1-488
l-2.')0
3(10
50
10
90
120
:»,5o
Illberninn,
2!Hi
38
13
21 A
2-334 ]'8H8
1-1.50
MOO
48
11
90
120
3.50
Norwe''iiin,
2!I0
38
13
21^
2;m 1-888
1-1.5(1
300
48
11
90
120
350
Jura,
.?0.'j
37<
m
22
2-24(1 1-007
1.200
40(1
CO
12
90
(H)
:)50
New ship, biiiliiins,. ..
30()
38
13
22
2-350;
I-2.50
500
50
15
110
120
350
The nominal horsepower, speed and ship's company are
approximate ; the actual horse-power exerted is nearly four
times the nominal. The Hibernian and Norwegian pIiow
a marked advantage in the net tonnage as compared with
the gross.
There are two regular Lines of Screw Steamers sailing
to Glasgow, and the pioneer vessel of one to London has
visited Montreal.
The St. Lawrence route to Liverpool as a steam one has
the very great advantage of sheltered and therefore compa-
tively smooth water from Cape Race to Quebec. The Can-
!:i
%'■
s>f
i
ji
,i «
146
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
adian steamers have 1,000 miles less of open ocean to con-
tend with than those plying to New York. Our mail
steamers should therefore regularly make shorter time than
the Cunard line, but for want of sufficient power they do
not do so : and from over loading since the grain trade at
Montreal has increased, their average voyages are longer
now than they were before 18v30. The contract for fixing
a maximum for the outward and homeward passage neces-
sarily allows a margin for bad weather, and thus this pro-
vision fails to secure that speed which alone can establish
the route. The subsidy should not be renewed unless the
utmost efficiency of which a screw line is capable of, is se-
cured; for this is precisely one of those things which should
be thoroughly done or not attempted at all. It is the
height of folly to continue to pay a large subsidy to a line
just fast enough to be beaten. The fastest line will take
the mails, — the most prolitaole traffic; and a larger subsidy
even than that now paid might prove remunerative if tliese
can be secured. A subsidy is no longer needed to open the
route, — it should now only be employed to demonstrate its
superiority to all otherp.
EARLY NAVIGATION OF THE ST. LAWRENCE,,
During the first quarter of the present century, — before
the state of New York had availed herself of that remark-
able pass through the Alleghany range, whicli is afford-
ed by the Hudson River, and had tapped Lakes Champlain,
Ontario, and Erie by means of her grand canals, — exports
from Noi-thern Vermont and New York, via Lake Cham-
]ilain (or Corlaer's Lake, as the Dutch had named it,) as well
as from those tributaries of the St. Lawrence which take
tlieir rise in the " Empire State," sought an outlet at Quebec
and Montreal. Previous to the year 1822, American lum-
ber, grain, &c., were admitted into Canada, duty free, and
ti !j
I
■ 1
1
j.^LjMi-'^'
■f
exported, ■
ducts, to 1
York was
and compi
prepared t
exports fro
a duty upc
in 1822, a
properly si
a duty mig
to the meas
into the B
American '
Canada wo
toms, via t
the Mississ
an evasion
navigation
Tills blund
re-admissio
Long bei
improveme
the whole (
constructed
theLongue
of larger si
neers, as m
the batteau
when agric
down (bofc
which wcr(
Some sligh:
.1805 and :
tinndise w
the batteaii
I
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
147
exported, witli all the privileges afforded to Canadian pro-
ducts, to the British West-Indian colonies. While New
York was pressing forward her canals (commenced in 1817
and completed in 1824,) the Imperial authorities, in 1822,
prepared the way for the complete diversion of American
exports from the St. Lawrence to those canals, by imposing
a duty upon such exports to Canada. Sir J. B. Eobinson,
in 1822, as the agent of Upper Canada in London, very
properly suggested that the propriety, or otherwise, of such.
a duty might safely be left to the Canadirns; but the defense
to the measure was that, as Canadian products were iKlmitted
into the British West-India colonies free of duty, while
American were taxed, the free admission of the latter into
Canada would be a discrimination in favor of British bot-
toms, via the St. Lawrence, against American bottoms, via
the Mississippi, of which the Americans would complain as
an evasion " of the relaxation professed to be made in the
navigation laws for the benefit of a reciprocal commerce."
Tais blunder was, however, acknowledged, in 1831, by the
re-admission of American exports, as before, free of duty.
Long before the commencement of any regular system of
improvement, by means of continuous canals overcoming
the whole of any rapid, small locks for batteaux had been
constructed by the French at the Cascades, the Coteau, and
the Longue Sault rapids. In 1804, these were reconstructed
of larger size and in improved positions, by the royal engi-
neers, as military works. While furs were the only exports
the batteau was suited to the trade in both directions; but
when agricultural export commenced, grain was first sent
down (l)efore 1800) on the raus, and in scows or " arks,"
which were broken up and sold as lumber ip Montreal
Some slight improvements were made by Lower Canada in
•J 805 and 1806 in the boat channel of the rapids. Mer*
cinndise was at that time carted to Lachine, from whence
the batteaux and Durham boats took their departure (in
10
I
il
tijlliiMfli
148
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
" brigades " of five or more boats, that their united crews
might aid each other at the rapids,) and sailed through Lake
St. Louis. At the Cascades, three-fourths of the cargo was
discharged and carted to the head of the Cedars — the boat,
with the remaining fourth, being locked past the Cascades,
dragged up the " Split Rock " and Cedars, and re-loaded —
passing the Cot au by a lock into Lake St. Francis. Above
Cornwall, there were two locks in Longue Sault, one of
which was a private speculation ; and between Mille Roches
and the head of the Longue Sault, as between the Cascades
and the Cedars, lighterage was necessary, three-fourths of
the cargo being discharged and hauled over land. From
Prescott the boats sailed up to Kingston, or (after 1818)
were towed by steamer. The average time required for the
voyage was twelve days, and the actual expenses of a Dur-
ham boat with an average cargo of eight tons, from Lachine
to Kingston, were as follows: —
Tolls at tho Cascades and Coteau, £2 10 -
Towing nt different Rapids, 5 10 —
Land carriage of G tons from Cascades to the Cedars, 3 — —
Lund carriage of 6 tons from Millo Roches, 3 — —
Towing by steamboat from Prescott to Kingston, 3 15-
Wages, &c., 6 men, 12 days, at 38. 6d. per day, 12 12 -
£30 7 0
^121 40 cents.
Salt, which was taken at the lowest rates, was charged 35.
9d. per cwt., in 1825, from Lachine to Kingston; the aver-
age rate on merchandise being 4s. 6d. per cwt, or eighteen
dollars per ton. The number of boats which paid toll at
the Coteau locks were —
Year.
1818,
1819,
1820,
1821,
1824,
Durham boats.
... 315 ....
... 339 ....
. .. 561 ....
... 342 ....
... 208 ....
Datteaax.
.. 679
.. 673
.. 430
.. 634
.. 596
■^rmti"
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOIT.
149
An addition of about twelve per cent, should be made,
to the above because one boat out of eigiit or nine sailed
up the rapids, and did not pay toll. Of the Durham boats
about one-half were American.
For downward cargo a Durham boat had a caprvcity of
three hundred and fifty barrels of flour, and a batteau thirty
to forty; but in their latter days these were made nearly as
large as the former. Upward, the former averaged eight
tons, and the latter four to five. The transportation of
1824 was diminished by a failure of the harvest in 1823, as
well as by the operations of the Imperial trade act of 1822.
The average passage of a boat from Kingston to Lachine
was four days, and the expense as follows: —
Six tnc •', four days, at 3s. 6d., £4 4 -
Pilotage at the rapids, 117 6
£6 16
$24 30
The downward trade in 1818 to 1825 averaged about
150,000 to 175,000 barrels per annum, say 15,000 tons;
and the upward trade about 5,000 tons, or about one to
three. In 1832, the trade had increased so as to give six to
eight hundred Durham boats and twelve to fifteen hundred
batteaux, passing the locks, the down trade being 66,000
tons and the up trade 21,000 tons — the proportions of about
three to one still holding good.
As the trade increased, passenger steamboats were placed
on Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and four-horse coaches
upon the portage roads. Improvements in the steamboats,
in 1833, enabled them to overcome the smaller rapids be-
tween the Longue Sault and Prescott; and from that date
they descended as far as Dickinson's Landing.
The agitation of the Erie and Ohamplain canals early
drew the attention of the Canadians to the competition
with which they were threatened. It was a renewal of that
If
w
in
If I"
150
TRAVEL AND TBANSPOKTATION.
strife, for the commerce of civilization, which had existed
for the fur-trade, between the English colonies on the At-
lantic and the French at Montreal and Quebec, before the
conquest. A short portage divided Fort Stanwix, on the
Mohawk (a principal branch of the Hudson,) from Wood
Creek, which flowed into Oneida Lake, and thence, by the
Onondaga Eiver, into Lake Ontario, at Oswego, which
latter place was the scene of more than one conflict between
French and English and their savage allies, over one hun-
dred years ago.
In 1817, the same year in which the canal bill passed at
Albany, and a month earlier, the government of Upper
Canada advertised for tenders for the improvement of the
navigation between Lachine and Kingston, by the course
of the river Eideau. The project of connecting Lakes Erie
and Ontario, by the Welland Canal, first appears in print,
November 29th, 1817, in a paper prepared by William
Hamilton Merritt for Eobert Gourlay. In 1818, a company
. was incorporated to construct the Lachine Canal, a project
which had been mooted as early as 1795 ; and another, in
1819, for the construction of the canal at Chambly.
Thus, movements were on foot, in the center and at the
two extremes, — to compass the objects aimed at by the
state of New York, — before the completion of her canals
had demonstrated their success; but, from various causes, at
the head of which, no doubt, the separation of the provinces
stood first, no actual commencement was made except with
tlie Lachine Canal upon the Island of Montreal, and the
Grcnville Canal (by the Imperial government) on the Otta-
wa, until long after the completion of the Erie and Cham-
plain canals.
The military canals, having been conceded to the province
in 1853, and happily never having been required for other
tlian commercial purposes, will be noticed under the head
of the Ottawa Eiver improvements.
Takmg 1
the order o
The Eicl
miles betw(
on Lake CI
this distanc
teen miles i
between th;
feet in leng
tween the
1844, and c
The second
by a canal
Btone locks
four feet, ar
pendcd in
at a cost of
boats can p;
Champlain,
Hudson Ei'\
of lumber !
Ottawa to t
Lake Chii
St. John's,
higher than
than the ri
nawaga (op
in a direct 1
a canal mus
will give a
millions of
miles in len
feet higher
L±
f^^r<ni^-
THAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
151
Taking the three great routes of Canadian navigation in
the order of their extent, we begin with the shortest.
LAKE CHAMPLAIN ROCTK.
The Eichelieu or Iroquois River has a length of eighty
miles between Sorel, on the St. Lawrence, and Rouse's Point,
on Lake Champlain, with two obstructions to navigation in
this distance. The first is overcome at St. Ours, about four-
teen miles from Sorel, by a dam which deepens the water
between this point and Chambly, and a lock — two hundred
feet in length between the gates, and forty -five feet wide be-
tween the walls, with six feet depth of water — begun in
1844, and completed in 1849, at an outlay of $153,117.65.
The second is the rapids above Chambly, which are passed
by a canal eleven and a half miles in length, with nine
Btone lockp, each one hundred and twenty-four by twtnty-
four feet, and six feet of water; commenced in 1831, sus-
pended in 1835, resumed in 1840, and completed in 1843,
at a cost of $480,000. By means of these improvements,
boats can pass from any part of the St. Lawrence into Lake
Champlain, and thence, by the Northern Canal and the
Hudson River, to the city of New York. Large quantities
of lumber are transported by this route from the city of
Ottawa to the Hudson River without transhipment.
Lake Champlain navigation extends into Canada aj far as
St. John's, at which point the river Richelieu is 29 feet
higher than the St. Lawrence at Lachine, or 74 feet higher
than the river at Montreal. The distance between Caugli-
nawaga (opposite Lachine) and St. John's is about 25 miles
in a direct line; but if Lake Champlain be made the feeder,
a canal must make a detour to avoid high ground, which
will give a length of 32 i miles, and a cost of about two
millions of dollars. Another plan is, to carry a feeder, 16
miles in length, from the Beauharnois Canal, on a level 37^
feet higher than Lake Champlain, down to a point opposite
jm
'l^iMuii^^*'
152
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
-• -i
Caugunawaga, and Feed a direct line of canal between tliia
point -^nd St. John's, which would be about eight miles
shorter than the canal fed from the Champlain level ; but as
it would have 87 feet more lockage, this would nearly
equalize the two routes, in point of time. This scheme,*
with the feeder made navigable, would cost about double
the other, say four millions of dollars; and, with a feeder
only, about three millions of dollars. The first scheme
gives the minimum amount of lockage to the Ottawa lum-
ber trade ; the second, to the through trade from the West,
unless the rapids are navigated by the freight boats, in
which case these will not leave the St. Lawrence until they
reach Caughnawaga; but the question of cost is conclusive
between these two plans. Montreal claims that the terminus
of the canal should be opposite that city: this has been
objected to as causing the Ottawa and western trade to de-
scend 45 feet, only to ascend the same again — besides add-
ing to the length of the route.
OTTAWA ROUTE.
The Ottawa River, where it joins the St. Lawrence, divides
so as to form the Island of Montreal, and about one-third
of its volumo, flowing by St. Anne's and Vaudreuil, (where
it forms a large island called Isle Perrot;) enters Lake
St. Louis, and passes over the Lachine Rapids — its dark
waters taking the Montreal side and forcing the blue St.
Lawrence into mid-channel. The other two-thirds flows to
the rear of Montreal Island, forming Little River, in which
is another large island. Isle Jesus, and discharges into the
St. Lawrence about fifteen miles below Montreal.
In connecting tide-water with the interior, the Lachine
Canal is common to both the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa
routes. Lachine, at the head of the first rapids on the St.
Lawrence, may, therefore, be considered the starting point
of this route ; and the first place where the navigation has
been improv
Lake of Tw(
high water <
affording a n
and was, mo:
built by a p
maintained i
completed tl:
1889,— is tw
and, with th
lock, a large
chine to Car
tawa, a distai
other rapids
twelve miles
the upper ar
the Imperial
old Lachine
others were
ment of the
have locks c
and thirty-f(
also extra
the North 1
to Ottawa t
(confined to
the Grenvi
portage rai
between Ca
Montreal ;
cessary to c
Ottawa.
Above tl
them obstr
adam road
?'^'^*^
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
163
been improved, is at St. Anne's, near the entrance to the
Lake of Two Mountains. The rapid here is navigable at
high water only; the opposite one of Yaudreuil, though
affording a more circuitous route, was passable at all stages,
and was, moreover, after 1832, aided by a lock for battoaux,
built by a private company. In this way navigation was
maintained until 1843, when the provincial government
completed the lock at St. Anne's, which was commenced in
1839, — is two hundred feet long by forty-five feet wide,
and, with the wing dam, cost $111,796. By means of this
lock, a large passenger steamer is enabled to run from La-
chine to Carillon at the foot of the Longue Sault of the Ot-
tawa, a distance of forty-five miles. The Longue Sault and
other rapids between Grenville and Carillon, a distance of
twelve miles, are passed by three detached canals with locks,
the upper and older of which was commenced, in 1819, by
the Imperial government, upon the same dimensions as the
old Lachine Canal, and remains unaltered to this day. The
others were not so far advanced in 1828, when the enlarge-
ment of the Eideau Canal was decided on, and therefore
have locks one hundred and twenty-eight to one hundred
and thirty -four feet long, and thirty -three feet wide ; and
also extra lockage, because the lowest one is fed from
the North River, a branch of the Ottawa. From Grenville
to Ottawa the river is navigable, and a passengei steamer,
(confined to the reach by being too large for the locks of
the Grenville or Rideau canals,) runs in connection with
portage railway between Grenville and Carillon, the steamer
between Carillon and Lachine, and the railway thence to
Montreal; thus making two railways and two steamers ne-
cessary to convey a passenger from Montreal to the city of
Ottawa.
Above this city, the Chaudi^re Falls and the rapids near
them obstruct the navigation for several miles ; but a Mac-
adam road connects with an iron steamer on the Chaudi^re
II
' if
f;f.
P
154
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Lake. No attempt, beyond surveys, has been made to
overcome the obstructions to ascending navigation immedi-
ately above Ottawa; but at the next point higher up (the
Cliats,) an abortive attempt to connect the Chaudi^re and
Chats Lakes, which are three miles apart and have fifty feet
difference of level, has been made. The obstructions at the
Chats are at present surmounted by a horse railway, three
miles in length, which conveys passengers and freight be,
tween the iron steamers which are running upon the two
lakes. Two other steamers are plying still higher up, on
reaches divided by rapids but connected by good portage
roads ; and by this means transportation is effected as far as
the head of the Deep Eiver, or to the foot of the rapids of the
Deux Joachims, a point nearly three hundred miles from
t^^e mouth of the Ottawa. From this point upward the
swift current and numerous rapids force a transfer from the
steamboat to the bark canoe — from the highest to the lowest
order of vessels for water transport.
THE RIDEAU CANAL.
The agitation of the canal question so soon after the
peace of 1815, naturally gave military considerations a
prominence in the discussion of the route; and thus we
have seen that, in 1817, the first action taken by Upper
Canada was with reference to this route. In 1824, the Im-
perial government offered to aid the upper province by a
grant of £70,000 sterling, towards the construction of this
canal; but the joint committee on internal navigation, in
1825, while admitting that this offer " ought to determine
us to apply our first exertions to the communication between
Kingston and Ottawa," was of opinion that, " regarding
only the commercial interests of the province, in time of
peace with the United States, the improvement of the river
St. Lawrence would naturally first engage attention, because
a much less expenditure would render this direct and nat
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
155
ural channel more Convenient for all purposes of trade."
The estimate by the St. Lawrence route, for locks one hun-
dred and thirty-two feet by forty feet, with eight feet of
water, was only £176,378 (or $705,512 ;) while that for the
Rideau, with locks only one hundred by twenty -two feet,
and seven feet of water, was £230,785 (or $923,1-40.)
The Imperial government had turned their attention to
this route immediately after the war; and, early in 1815,
Colonel Nicolls, commanding royal engineer, sent Lieutenant
Jebb to explore the direct route by Irish Creek. In 1825,
a committee of royal engineers, sent out to Canada, were
instructed to bring home an estimate for the cost of a canal
by this route, based upon the dimensions of the Lachine
Canal, then completed. Tnis was found to be £169,000
(or $676,000) — whereupon the Imperial government, desir-
ous of retaining the complete control of the canal in case
of another war, determined on its construction; and, in
May, 1826, sent out Lieutenant-Colonel John By, R. E., who
commenced it on the 21st of September, 1826, and passed
the first steamer through on the 29th of May, 1832 ; but
the works were not completed until 1834. This route is
one hundred and twenty-six and one-quarter miles long, of
which only sixteen and a half are canal. From Ottawa, it
ascends two hundred and ninety-two feet by thirty-four
locks, in a distance of eighty-seven and a half miles, to the
summit level of the Rideau Lakes; and then descends
one hundred and sixty-five feet by thirteen locks, in a dis-
tance of thirty-eight and three-quarters miles; giving a
total of forty-seven locks with four hundred and fifty -seven
feet lockage. The navigation is formed by twenty-four
dams, six of which range from twenty-five to sixty feet in
height. Most of these dams are of stone, — a questionable
policy, as timber ones are as reliable and very much
cheaper. The original canal was intended to have a towing
path; but, in 1828, another committee of royal engineers.
iyklbtt*i>*»**
166
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
tii
'lb"
•with Sir James Kempt at their head, atfthorized its enlarge-
ment for steam navigation, the locks to be one hundred
and thirty- four by thirty-three feet; the towing-path was,
therefore, unfortunately omitted.
The canal drops into the Ottawa by a flight of eight com-
bined locks, having a lift of eighty -two feet ; and as it was
necessary, on leaving the Ottawa, at once to rise above the
level of the Chaudi^re Lake, the navigation would have
been extended without additional lockage, nearly forty
miles higher up the river, had the canal been kept in it
until that lake was reached.
TIMBER SLIDES ON THE OTTAWA.
The Ottawa, above the point where the Imperial canal
joined it, has been, with several of its large tributaries, the
subject of improvement, for downward transportation only
— for the purpose of bringing out timber and lumber with
greater expedition, greater safety, and greater economy.
These works are peculiar to Canada and deserve more than
a passing notice.
The heavy timber, hauled out by the aid of the snow
which gives access to every tree, is deposited on the ice in
the several streams and lakes, and is there left to be borne
down by the spring freshets, either in single sticks or
in rafts manned by men, according to the size of the stream.
If not rafted, it goes off with the water, followed by the
men in canoes, whose duty it is to look after the stragglers
grounded on a shoal or detained in an eddy, and shove
them out into the main stream. This mode of bringing
out the timber, which is called " driving," is praoticable
upon almost all streams when in freshet; but, on many,
there are a few places where the obstructions are so great as
to call for artificial aid, to prevent detention of the timber
until too late for that tide which, if not taken at the flood,
too often leads to misfortune. In some rivers, precipitous
cataracts ai
the virgin
by means (
down. In
so great tL
be got int
next year.
The sli(
troughs of
which a p(
thereby ca
stick fiist 0
are narrow
a water-wl
timber th(
them a cri
forty tons
and the c
fifty feet I
Dams a
and rocks
high wate
strengther
to govern
The Oti
the outlet
whence Q'
added the
have beei
at much
of Quinte
was comp
three mih
in the coi
thfj water
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
157
cataracts and jagged rocks are so destructive to timber that
the virgin groves have remained almost untouched, until,
by means of slides and dams, it could be profitably brought
down. In others, the delays in passing certain points were
so great that the freshet passed off before the timber could
be got into the main river, and it was left behind for the
next year.
The slides are artificial ^^ chutes" formed by inclined
troughs of timber and plank, open at both ends, through
which a portion of the stream is diverted, and the timber
thereby carried past chutes and places where it would either
stick fixst or be torn to splinters. For " driving," the slides
are narrow, and similar to the flumes or raceways supplying
a water-wheel ; but when designed for the passage of rafted
timber they are twenty -five feet wide; and down one of
them a crib, containing fifteen hundred cubic feet or nearly
forty tons of timber, will be carried, with the men aboard
and the cookhouse undisturbed, and in a few moments be
fifty feet below its former level.
Dams are resorted to to flood back the water on shoals
and rocks which retain and damage the timber; to stop up
high water channels — so as to keep it from straying or to
strengthen the main current; and also at the head of chutes,
to govern and regulate the mouth of slides.
The Ottawa and the Bay of Quinte, the latter as being
the outlet of the inland waters, are the chief sources from
whence Quebec is supplied with timber; to these may now be
added the St. Maurice or Three Rivers. Recently, rafts
have been towed through some of the great lakes, but
at much risk and some loss. The first raft from the Bay
of Quinte was got out by Samuel Sherwood, in 1790. It
was composed of masts cut upon the north shore of the bay,
three miles east of Trenton; and there being then no cattle
in the country, Sherwood used tackle to haul the timber to
the water. In 1806, Philemon Wright took the first raft
Mt
'-/."':; ti
TH?
1 1
il
158
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
down the Ottawa. It was obtained from tlie Gatineau, a
large tributary entering near Ottawa City.
PROPOSED OTTAWA AND LAKE HURON CANALS.
In 1853, an appropriation of $200,000 was obtained,
without previous survey or estimate, for the purpose of
connecting the Chats and Chaudiere Lalces by means of a
canal with fifty feet lockage. The idea of the projectors
was to commence on a magnificent scale at a point where
the very uselessness of the expenditure would be an argu-
ment in favor of its extension, east and west, to Montreal
and Lake Huron. They did not, therefore, court any ana-
lyzation of the scheme. The government of that day, on
the other hand, obtained the support of the Ottawa constit-
uencies for their railway policy along the St. Lawrence, and
wore thus induced to grant the sum required to commence
operations. The simultaneous failure of the contractor and
the appropriation afforded a decent pretext for suspension
in 1856, which ended in abandonment: in the meantime
the projectors were amused with a series of extensive sur-
veys of the whole route, between Montreal and Lake Huron,
— of over four hundred miles, and with estimates for canals
for Atlantic vessels.
The result of these surveys shows that the abandoned
canal on which $873,191 has been expended was in the
wrong place; that to have completed it on the scale pro-
posed would have cost $1,465,'139, whereas the same result
can be produced in the right place for $081,932 — in other
words, that 'the opportune abandonment of the work will
effect a saving of $410,316. It is gratifying to know that
if the commencement has involved a loss of $373,191, the
abandonment has saved a greater sum, and that there is
still a handsome balance to the credit of the latter. The
summit level of the proposed Ottawa route at Lake Nipis-
sing wouli
water; an
Huron, b;
feet, the J
seventy-se
The gei
Mr. T. C.
extracted
Section;
Lachine Can;
Tjake St. Lou
Saint Anne's,
Lake of Two
Carillon to Gi
Green Shoals
Ottawa River
Chaufiiore an
Chenes, . . .
Dfs Chenes 1
Chats,
Chats I^ke,
Snows to Blac
River and Lai
longe, . . .
Chapeau and .
Deep River,.
Joachim's to
tawan,. . . .
River Mattaw
Summit love!
French River
Add Enginee
Superinten
Totals, .
The SC£
thousand
forty-five
mitre sills
These ]
taken on !
h uiifl
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
159
sing would be six hundred and fifty-one feet above tide-
water; and tbe total rise and fall from tide-water to Lake
Huron, by this route, is seven hundred and
twenty-eight
feet, the fall from Lake Nipissing to Lake Huron being
seventy-seven feet.
The general resuUs of the Ottawa survey,
as made by
Mr. T. C. Clark, C. E., are embraced in the following table
extracted from his report: —
OTTAWA AND FRENCH RIVER NAVIGATION.
^-Distances, iniIe8-> , I,bvels .
Sections. Rivers and r-.n.i= No. of Lockage,
Cost.
Lakes. l^anals. Locks. feel.
Lachine Canal, ... 850 5... 43-75.
. . .not estimated.
T.-iko St. Louis, 13-31 ...
do.
Saint Anne's, ... 119 1... 100.
$4 69,672
Lake of Two Mts.,. 2470...
Carillon to Gr'nv'le,. 7-73 . . . 500 .... 7 . . . 5850 .
1,649,909
Green Shoals, ... -10
136,105
Ottawa River, 55.97 ...
Chaufiicre and Des
Chenes, 3-75... 2-61.... 6... 6300.
816.733
Des Chenes Lake,.. 2669 ...
Chats, 1-70... -60.... 5... 50 00.
681,932
Chats Uko, 19-28 ...
Snows to Black falls, 18 32 ... 105 .... 11 ... 10400 .
!'.'. 1,256,840
River and Lake Cou-
longe, 2493 ...
262,514
Chapeau and L'Islet, 4-85 ... '14 ... . 2 ... 1800 .
243,.'^^07
Deep River, 33-58...
Joachim's to Mat-
townn 51-r4 . . . 226 14 ... 14820 .
1,757,653
1,162,154
River Mattawan, . . 1622 . . . 108 .... 11 ... 14400 .
Sunimitlovel and cut, 5115 .. . 697
2,16n,.S69
French River 4752... -82.... 7... 7700.
886,117
Add Engineering &
Superintendence, ...
574,175
.. $12,057,680
Totals, 401-44 . . . 2932 . . . . 64 . . . 665 70 .
The scale of navigation proposed is for vessels of one
thousand tons. Locks two hundred and fifty feet long by
forty-five feet wide, with twelve feet depth of water on the
mitre sills.
These figures are conclusive; — a canal scheme, under-
taken on such a scale, and upon such a route,
with all the
,^^.:-«.«,1,
I'l
.**»'••>*'
I ]
160
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION
changes and additions which would follow, would result in
an expenditure of at least twenty millions of dollars; but
if it could be done for ten, it would be equally impracticable
as a provincial undertaking. The region traversed does
not possess sufficient political influence to carry the appro-
priations for a tithe of the sum required ; and as a commer-
cial speculation no case could be made out for it. Although
it would sliorten the distance between Montreal and Lake
Huron by three hundred miles over the present route, via
the lakes and the Welland Canal, there would be no saving
of time on the round trip, on account of the extra lockage
and river navigation; and it would be exclusively a route
for steamers, whereas the greater part of the present route
is available for sail craft. On the St. Lawrence route the
extra three hundred miles would be overcome by a propeller
in the open lakes with an unvarying speed, night and day,
of ten miles per hour; while the ten extra locks of the Ot-
tawa route, and the m.ore intricate river navigation worked
at half-speed, would demand at least an equal loss of time.
For the downward commerce only, which gives at least
tliree tons to one of the upward, the difference is vastly \r
favor of the St. Lawrence, in those boats which descend
the rapids, as there is in this case only the Welland Canal
with tweiity-seven locks against the Ottawa canals with
fifty-nine. On the St. Lawrence route there is a local as well
as a through business, and a choice of markets while in
transitu, as well as the proximity of railways in case of in-
terruption to the navigation. On the Ottawa there is at
present only sawn lumber to fill out a cargo. But while
so great an undertaking is, on the part of Canada, financially
impracticable and commercially unwarrantable, the opening
of this route is, as an imperial and military work, most de-
sirable. From the remote position of the greater part, the
expense of cut-stone locks of the size proposed, would
make it advisable to reduce the scale and also the character
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
161
of the work. Cedar cribwork is nearly as durable as or-
dinary masonry in this climate; and by substituting it,
filled with stones and planked water-tight, for stone-work,
the Ottawa route would supply the materials and the kind
of labor required. The laying of masonry can only be ad-
vantageously done for a few months in the year, and a por-
tion of this time would be lost by high water. In some
sections it would probably be found cheaper to build
timber locks, if only for the purpose of reducing the cost
of the future stone ones. Any increased cost of mainte-
nance would be far less than the interest saved, and the
amount so saved in interest would be an ample renewal
fund. The fact that scarcely one of the hundreds of stone
locks in America have proved after ten years' experience,
to be properly proportioned, for the wants of commerce,
would suggest the propriety of substituting timber for stone
for the peculiar conditions of the Ottawa route — especially
as there seems no hope for the work being carried out upon
any more expensive basis.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.
The early and eflicient commencement of this work was
very much retarded by the fact that the obstructions were
under separate jurisdictions, and nearly equally divided be-
tween the two provinces; and that the action of one would
be of little value unless imitated by the other. Lower
Canada, having control of the seaports, helped herself to the
lion's sliare of the import duties, the only fund upon which
either province could rely for internal improvements. The
division of these duties was a constant source of contention
between them. From 1792 to 1813, Lower Canada col-
lected a net revenue of £642,000 sterling, of which sho
kept £600,000 and gave the pdd numbers to her younger
sister. From 1813 to 1818, Upper Canada received less
than twenty-five per cent, of the net revenue collected by
« i-
'; '. •
iHMk^.
;j^i'-'''
162
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK.
Lower Canada, — and in 1820 and 1821, nothing at all;
whereupon she carried her complaints to the foot of the
throne, and thereafter the Imperial government assumed the
collection and distribution of these revenues. The net
amount received by the two p; vinces, in the half-century
between their separation in 1791 and their re-union in 1841,
was, Lower Canada, £3,445,110 sterling (or $17,225,700;)
and Upper Canada, £731,834 sterling (or $3,659,173,)
which may be considered the measure of the ability of the
two, respectively, in carrying on their public works. Both
provinces had a gradually increasing but comparatively un-
important revenue collected at their inland ports; and
I^ower Canada, under cover of inspection, levied a toll on
scows and rafts passing Chateauguay, which, between 1808
and 1831, yielded about £6,500 (or $31,633.33.) She
also claimed the excess, not only by virtue of her superior
population, but on the ground that rum, the article on which
the bulk of the duty was collected, was almost exclusively
consumed by her; and Upper Canada was charged with
having descended to whisky. Per^contra, it may be stated
that the quantity of rum which passed above Coteau du
Lac in 1799 was about sixty thousand gallons, (which prob-
ably went to the United States as well as to Upper Canada;)
and the still harder fact that a barrel of rum, the freight on
which was three to three and a half dollars from Lachine to
Kingston, was the well-known standard of up freight for
merchandise by batteaux and Durham boats.
The action taken by the two provinces, respectively, be-
f(3re the Union with reference to the improvement of the
St. Lawrenct? was as follows. As early as the session of
1795-96, a bill was introduced for the construction of both
a canal and a turnpike to Lachine, by the late Hon. John
Jlichardson, who lived to cq^y out those schemes at a later
day. In 1805, the Legislature of Lower Canada ajipropri-
ated £1,000 (or $4,000) to clear the channel of the Lachine
i i
'^'"^^Ww
PdUTAGK.
See Pago 132
TIMBER SLIDli,
/ikiU**^
■II
Rapids.
np light
point it
expend i
the folic
Lake St.
v^hen c(
Upper C
raunicat
and Ott;
corporat
years, ai
in seven
by the ]
1823 a f^
the Cluu
not be C'
1831 an
battcan.N
Francis .
mate po^
C(ju]d n(
scheme i
by whici
per houi
planes \\
au Diabl
yond th
movemc
spect to
The li
ment da
governo
whole o]
Lachine
W'Tftl
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
163
Rapids. Batteaiix, which ran down loaded, were dragged
lip light and took in their up cargo at Lachine. to which
point it was carted from Monti-cal. The result of this first
expenditure proving satisfactory, a similar sum was given
the following year for the ra]>ids between Montr'^.al and
Lake St. Francis. Nothing farther was done until 181S,
v/hen commissioners were ajipoiutcd to meet those froni
Upper Canada about the improvement of the water com-
munication between the provinces, both by the St. Lawrence
and Ottawa routes. In that yoar, also, a company was in-
corporated to construct tlie Lachiiie Canal within tliree
years, and another for the Chambly Canal, to be completed
in seven years. In 1821, the Lacliine Canal was assumed
by the province, the company having failed to act; and in
1823 a similar course was taken, for the same reason, with
the Chambly Canal, coupled with the proviso that it sliould
not be commenced until the Liicljiiie was completed. In
1831 an :ip[)ropriation was made for ascertaining if loaded
battcanx could be taken up the ra})ids between Lakes St.
Francis and St. Louis, and whether steamers, about the ulti-
mnte power of which great expo^ctations had been formed,
Could not ascend the cascades to Prcscott. This was a
scheme for " reducing the grade " of the river at tlie rapids,
by which it was hoped currents of twelve or fourteen miles
per hour could be reduced one-lialf Cuts forming inclined
planes were made at i\Iill Point below the Cedars, at Point
au Diable, the Rigolet, and French's Run;' but nothing be-
yond the (expenditure of the money resulted from this
movement, — with which the action of Lower Canada in re-
spect to the improvement of the St. Lawrence terminated.
The first movement of L^pper Canada was an advertise-
ment dated I9th February, 1817, in which the lieutenant-
governor invited tenders for the work of rendering the
whole or any portion of the water communication between
Lachine nnd Kingston, by the course of the river Rideau,
11
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164
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
navigable for boats drawing two feet of water and ten feet
in width, and also for boats drawing three feet of water and
twelve feet in width. The route defined was by Irish
Creek and Kideau and Mud Lakes; the number and posi-
tion of the locks were to be specified, and " the number of
flood-gates in each lock." The next year £2,000 (or $8,000)
was granted for a survey of the St. Lawrence, and in 1821
commissioners were appointed. In 1823 and 1824, £2,000
(or ,$8,000) more were granted to this commission of which
Robert Nichol was vice-president, and James Gordon and
Charles Jones, members. On the death of Colonel Nichol,
his place was filled by John Macaulay. As the views of
the country with respect to the scale of the proposed navi-
gation became enlarged each successive year, the magnitude
of the undertaking evidently alarmed the Legislature.
Even the offer of £70,000 stg. ($350,000) by the Imperial
government towards opening the Rideau route, failed to
elicit more than an expression of gratitude and a promise
of early consideration. The Legislature leaned to the St.
Lawrence as the natural commercial route, having only
about one-half of the lockage of the Rideau route; and
were, moreover, convinced that it would be the cheaper of
the two. The Imperial government, desiring the control
of the work for military purposes, set about the Rideau
Canal themselves, in 1826, on an estimate of £169,000 stg.
($845,000,) and completed it in 1832 at a cost of £900,000
stg. ($4,500,000) — a result which may fully account for the
hesitation of the Legislature, in 1825, in accepting the
£70,000 ($350,000) and undertaking the work.
The opening of the Rideau route failed to satisfy the
wants of the trade. The lock at Yaudreuil was in the
hands of a private company; those at Grenville were much
less in size than the ones above and below them; fixed
bridges prevented masted vessels from going through ; and
the absence of a towing-path made forwarding a monopoly,
and caused
through wi
managed as
— the partie
or opinion
therefore, tl
set about;
1833, and tl
In descril
ment of the
About fif
influenced i
broad and
depth at lo
and sea-goi
in entering
standing th
emporium
timber, in ">
coves of Qi
or three cc
Peter, and
it was prop
sixteen feet
This was fi
the enginee
to leave th(
from the oc
to the reqi
after expei
the Leg i si a
whereupon
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
165
and caused the delay and expense of locking a steam-tug
through with every freight. Moreover, the canal was
managed as a military rather than commercial undertaking
— the parties in charge being beyond the reach of authority
or opinion in the colony. No sooner had it been tried,
therefore, than the improvement of the St. Lawrence was
set about; a grant being made for the Cornwall Canal in
1833, and this work was commenced-in 1834.
In describing the several works embraced in the improv-
ment of the St. Lawrence, we commence at tide-water with
LAKE ST. PETER.
About fifty miles below Montreal, at the lowest point un-
influenced by tide, the St. Lawrence spreads out into a
broad and shallow expanse called Lake St. Peter. The
depth at low-water upon these flats was only eleven feet,
and sea-going vessels were consequently obliged to lighten
in entering and leaving Montreal, which city, notwith-
standing this disadvantage, maintained her position as the
emporium for the import trade, and of all exports except
timber, in which latter trade the tidal harbor and roomy
coves of Quebec defy competition. As there were only two
or three comparatively insignificant bars above Lake St.
Peter, and none below, and as the bed of the lake was soft,
it was proposed to deepen the channel by dredging, so that
sixteen feet draft of water might be carried up to Montreal.
This was first attempted by the government in 1844, when
the engineers endeavored to induce old Father St. Lawrence
to leave the bed in which he had lain since first he emerged
from the ocean, and follow a "straight cut," to be dredged
to the required depth. The work was so managed that,
after expending $295,619, it was suspended in 1847, and
the Legislature, after investigation, abandoned it in disgust;
whereupon the Hon. John Young, on behalf of the harbor
1 1
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166
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
commissioners of Montreal, after four years had elapsed,
obtained permission to try again, and tlie work was recom-
menced in 1851. By following the natural channel, com-
plete success has been obtained, with much less time and
money, and a vessel drawing not sixteen but eighteen feet
of V. dter can now come up. It is intended to continue op-
erations until twe-ity feet at low-water is obtained; and as
the government, having had its practicability demonstrated,
has assumed the expense, it is to be hoped this work will
be carried out.
THE LACHINE CANAL.
The original canal between Montreal smd Lachine, com-
menced in 1821 and completed in 1825 at a cost of
£110,000 (or §110,000,) was an admirably constructed
Avork, witli cut-stone locks, one hundred and eight feet
long between the gates, and twenty feet wide, with fix-
ed bridges of the same class of masonry. In these, as in
the locks of the Eideau and St. Lawi'ence canals, the upper
gates were placed upon br-^ast walls, which reduced the
effective length of the lock. On the Welland Canal, the
upper gates being carried down to the level of the lower
ones, the whole length between the gates is available.
The enlargement of the old Lachine boat canal, in con-
nection with the construction and completion of the re-
mainder of the St. Lawrence ship canals, was one of the im-
mediate consequences of the reunion in 1841, thus confirm-
ing the views of Mr. Macaulay, in 1825, as to the impolicy of
its substantial stone locks of boat size only. The enlarge-
ment, begun in 1813, was sufficiently advanced in 1818 for
the passage of large vessels, and was completed in" 1819,
except the widening of a portion of the rock-cut near La-
chine which is now in progress. This canal, eight and
a half miles long with forty -four feet lockage, surmounts
the obstacles presented by the Lachine Eapids, and con-
nects Lake
with the ha
The next
site or sout
upon that si
commenced
Lake St. L
considerable
known as tl
At the I
Canal, twel
head of the
taken by U
1838, by w
expended,
tional cost (
in 1813.
From th(
eight miles
Rapid Plat
united lock
separate ca
which have
canals weri
to the trad(
The not:
that althouj
one hundrc
miles of ca
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
167
nects Lake St. Louis, an enlargement of the St. Lawrence,
with the harbor of Montreal.
THE BEAUIIARNOIS CANAL.
The next in order is the Beauharnois Canal on the oppo-
site or south bank of the St. Lawrence, and the only one
upon that side, eleven miles long with eighty feet lockage,
commenced in 18'12 and completed in 1849. [t connects
Lake St. Louis with Luke St. Francis, O' jrcoining three
considerable rapids, united together by a swift current, and
known as the Coteau, the Cedars, and the Cascades.
THE CORNWALL CANAL.
At the upper end of Lake St. Francis, the Cornwall
Canal, twelve miles long with fifty feet lockage, reaches the
head of the Longue Sault Eapids. This work was under-
taken by Upper C- nada alone in 1831, and carried on until
1838, by which time £110,000 (or $1,760,000) had been
expended. It was completed after the union, at an addi-
tional cost of £75,000 (or §300,000,) and opened for traffic
in 1813.
THE WILLIAMSBURO CANALS.
From the Cornwall Canal to Prescott, a distance of thirty -
eight miles, there are four minor rapids, — Farrans Point,
Rapid Plat, Point Iroquois, and Les Gallopes, — with a
united lockage of twenty-two and a half feet, at which four
separate canals were first constructed, the two upper of
which have since been united by the Junction Canal. These
canals were commenced in 1813; the upper one was opened
to the trade in 1816 and the remainder in 1817.
The notable feature of the St. Lawrence navigation is,
that although between Prescott and Montreal, a distance of
one hundred and fifteen miles, there are forty and one-half
miles of canal, and twenty-seven locks with two hundred
In
'•yife-
168
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
and four and three-quarters feet lockage, steamers of live
hundred tons burthen daily descend from the level ac Pres-
cott to that at Montreal (the fall being two hundred and
twenty-five feet) without using a lock or canal. The rapida
of the St. Lawrence, though some have a fall of over forty
feet in a mile, are navigable for descending boats with a
draught of six to eight feet according to the extremes of
low and high water. Freight boats drawing more than
this descend the canals; but the mixed freight and passen-
ger steamers, wh'ch the rapidity, comfort, and excitement
of the trip sustain in spite of the railway, all run the
rapids, making the passage between Prescott and Montreal
in nine to ten hours. The improvement of the rapids so as
to turn the whole descending trade down the river, thereby
shortening the time of transit and practically doubling the
capacity of the canals, has been mooted for the last ten
years. Two modes have been proposed; one to raise the
water surilice by dams and piers, the other to lower the
bottom by submarine blasting, — rboth having the same ob-
ject in view, viz., the increase of depth at two or three
points, w^here alone there is any deficiency. The former
plan has been successfully adopted for the purposes of the
timber navigation on the Ottawa; the latter, which 'has
been also tried there, has not only done no good but positive
harm, because it has substituted a torn and jagged bed of
rock for one worn smooth by the flow of ages. Moreover,
a rapid being an inclined trough, if the bottom is lowered
the water surface descends with it more or less, and any at-
tempt to increase the depth, beyond the removal of an
isolated boulder, &c., by submarine blasting, except in
slack water, seems hopeless. Lastly, the effect of submarine
blasting against Potsdam sandstone in shoal water would
scarcely be perceptible, while the cost, if persisted in, would
be overwhelming. An appropriation of £25,000 (or
|100,000) as an experiment would settle the question
of the prac
and would
of an objec
played tow;
important c
Lawrence i
the deman(
taken assui
supersede t
not now CO
active co-o|
induccmeu'
companies
under publ
lowest bid.
dental advi
support ot
dized railv
through th
hand is nt
surprisin
ways and
time than
safeguards
From
craft of ai
tance of
rather a p
called tli<
Hamilton
without 1
miles abc
works, oft
more pro]
Ol
1
TRAVEL AND THAN8PORTATION,
169
of the practicability of flooding tlie shoals by dams, &c.,
and would be a mere trifle, even to throw away in pursuit
of an object of so much importance. The indifference dis-
played towards this subject, as weil as toward the equally
important one of an enlarged direct canal between the St.
Lawrence (near Montreal) and Lake Champlain is due to
the demands created by our railway policy, and the mis-
taken assumption that railways would in a great measure
supersede the canals. Improvements in the navigation do
not now come home to any particular locality, or enlist the
active co-operation of any ])arty. Moreover, they offe,r no
inducement to speculators to undertake them by corporate
companies ; for, the expenditure being necessarily made
under public competition, in which the work goes to the
lowest bidder, such works do not afford any of those inci-
dental advantages by which fortunes are made and party
support obtained, and which are so conspicuous in a subsi-
dized railway. When the public funds can be dispensed
through the medium of an irresponsible corporation, the left
hand is not ignorant of what the right is doing; it is not
surprising, therefore, that the indirect system of aiding rail-
ways and municipalities has been more popular for the
time than the direct application of the money, under proper
safeguards, to works of general utility only.
From Prescott upward, navigation is unrestricted for
craft of any dimensions to the head of Lake Ontario, a dis-
tance of two hundred and fifty miles. Here a canal, or
rather a passage without locks, is opened across a sand bar,
called the Beach, into Burlington Bay, by which means
Hamilton is made a lake port. The Desjardins Canal, also
without locks, extends lake navigation to Dundas, five
miles above Hamilton ; these canals are, however, local
works, ofi'the line of the St. Lawrence and Lake routes, and
more properly come under the head of Harbor Works.
\
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The F
tliein, offi
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required
betwet^-;
agn-.oga1.
between
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twenty y
proposed
merit wa;
tween th
rio, — wli
lUth Maj
Thomas
seph Sir
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
THE WELLAND CANAL.
171
The Falls of Niagara, with the rapid.^ above and below
them, offer by far the most formidable obstruetion to naviga-
tion of any upon the line of the St. Lawrence. The lockage
required to connect that short distance of twenty -eight miles,
betwcf- Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, is greater than the
agfi".ogate of all other obstructions in the thousand miles
betwemi Lake Superior and tide water.
Although a canal to unite the two lakes was projected at
Niagara as early as 1798, and an exploration of the ridge
whicii bounds the Welland River, on the north, was made
twenty years later, (in 1818, the year after the scheme was
proposed by Mr. Merritt to Gourlay,) the lirst active move-
ment was made in 1823, by obtaining a line of levels be-
tween this river, called also the Chippewc, and Lake Onta-
rio,— which were run bv Ilirain Tibbets, (3ngineer. On the
IDth May, 1824, the legislature incorporated George Keefer,
Thomas Merritt, George Adams, William Chisholm, Jo-
seph Smith, Paul Shipman, John Decou, and William
Uamilton Merritt, as the " Welland Canal Company," with
a capital of £37,500, (§150,000,) divided into 3,000 shares
of £12,106'., (§50.00,) each. Over one-fourth of the stock was
subscribed, and the work was commenced on the 30th No-
vember, 182-1, and it is worthy of remark ; that " its prose-
cution was not discc ntinued a single day until two vessels
passed from lake to lake, five years later;" although in the
meantime the expenditure was more than six times the
i)riginal capital. The lirst project contemplated a boat canal
only, up the valley of the Twelve Mile Creek to the foot
of the mountain ridge, ascending from thence by a railway
to the Beaver dams, and thence to the Welland River b}'' a
boat canal tunneled through the Ridge: but power was ob-
tained also to connect the Welland River with Lake Erie at
the mouth of the Grand River. In 1825, a ship canal was
dctennined on, a)id the capital stock was increased to
I'.
172
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
£200,000, ($800,000.) In 1826, tlie legislature loaned the
company £25,000, ($100,000,) and the Imperial govern-
ment, the same year, gave £16,300, sterling, ($81,500,) one-
ninth of the estimated cost, in consideration of the free pas-
sage of government stores, troops, and vessels. In 1827
the legislature took £50,000, ($200,000) stock, the com-
pany to pay interest until one year after completion ; and
also granted 13,400 acres of marsh land. The legislature
of Lower Canada also took £25,000 stg., (or $100,000) stock.
In 1828 the whole amount of stock was paid up, and the
company succeeded in borrowing £50,000 (or $250,000)
from the Imperial government on condition of surrendering
the grant of one-ninth the cost. The work had so pro-
gressed that it was fully anticipated the water would have
been let in early in November, 1828; but, when within ten
days of this estimated result, slips of so formidable a cliar-
acter took place in the " Deep Cut," which wa.-i seventy
feet in depth, that it became indispensable to abandon the
original plan of making a feeder of tlie Welland Kiver, the
level of which is ten feet lower than Lake Erie, and to bring
a supply of water on a higher level from the Grand Hiver,
in order to pass over the quicksands which caused the slides.
Up to this period the whole pressure had been borne by
the shareholders; no aid had been granted by the govern-
ment except that for which the interest had been punctually
paid by the company; but now the funds were almost ex-
hausted, and they dared not appeal to the legislature while
prophecies of the inevitable flulure of all attempts to get a
navigation through the Deep Cut met them at cwry point.
It was now necessary to throw a dam across the Grand
Eivcr by which its waters were raised about seven feet above
tlu^ level of Lake Erie, and to cut a feeder, twenty-seven
miles in length, to be carried by nn aqueduct over the Wel-
land liiver; by which means, after allowing for the i'all in
the feeder, a level sixteen feet higher than the Welland
Tliver was obtained, and thus the necessity of carrying the
TRAVEL AND TRAKSPORTATION.
173
Deep Cut down into those treaclieroiis quicksands was
avoided. It was necessary to do all tins chiefly on credit,
and a covenant was inserted in each contract that a percent-
age only was to be paid in cash, the balance " after the
company obtained the means from the legislature ; " so con-
fident were the directors that parliament, like Jupiter, would
help those who help themselves.
Although the frost did not leave the ground until the
15th of April, 1829, the dam across the Grand Eiver, the
aqueduct over the Welland, four locks at the Deep Cut, the
cut at the mouth of the Welland, and twenty-seven miles
of canal, were so far completed on the 9th day of October
as to admit the passing of a vessel down the feeder; and on
the 30th of November (the anniversary of its commence-
ment five years before,) two schooners, one British and the
other American, the "Ann and Jane" of York (Toronto,)
and the " E. H. Bough ton" of Youngstown, N. Y., passed
up from Lake Ontario into Lake Erie.
The confidence displayed by the contractors, without
which the works must have been suspended altogether, was
natural result of the vigor, ability, and integrit}'- displayed
oy the projector of the work, — the Hon. William Hamilton
Merritt,* — by whose extraordinary energy, perseverance
and discretion all difficulties were surmounted. Of those
out of the })rovinee, John B. Yates of New York, the
largest private shareholder, who in 1827 became liable for
a large amount in aid of the company, was its greatest
benefactor. To show upon how few the labor fell, only eight
Upper Canadians, viz., William Hamilton Merritt of St.
Catherines, George Keefer of Thorold (who was the first
president of the company,) John Henry Dunn, John Bev-
* Since these lines were written, ilentli lias removed a man, who, with un-
fliigging energy, ever pursued his objeet in the spirit of peace ; — a politicinn
wlio was not an offiee-beekor, and who loved his country more than si.lf or
party, — a stateKninii often in advjinoo of his countiynH'n — but not of his coun-
try— and u loyalist who so valued truth that he sought it even from the enemy —
preferring to bo misunderstood rather than to remain unarmed.
m
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174
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
orly Eobinson, William Allan, TIenry John Boulton, D'Arcy
Boulton, and Colonel Joseph Wells, of Toronto, — held
suflieient stoek to qualify them to become directors; and for
these services they never received, or looked for, any com-
uensation.
Parliament in 1830, by a majority of two, granted a loan
of £25,000 (or $100,000,) which enabled the company to
pay the debts incuri'ed during the previous year. The
whole expenditure to this period had been £272,795 (or
$1,001,180.) To avoid the circuitous route by the Welland
and Niagara Elvers, and the strong current in the latter, it
was proposed to enlarge the feeder, as far as its course was
directed toward Lake Erie, and cut a new channel, only
seven miles long, to join that lake at Gi'cvelly Bay; and
for this purpose the aqueduct over the Welland had been
made twenty-four feet wide. In 1831, £50,000 (or $200,000)
was loaned by the legislature on condition that this amount
M'onld complete the canal and harbors, and tliat the eom-
pany shoidd ]iav the interest of the loan and one-half the
pi'ineipal; and John B. Yates, William II. Merrilt, and
Alexander Yates A[eDonell became sureties for these con-
ditions. The work was retarded by fearful ravages of tlie
cholera in 1832, but in 1833 the new outlet at Gravelly
Bay (Fort Colbornc,) was brought into use. After this
date the control of the work was in a great measure assumed
by commissioners appointed by government to look
after the large interest the province now had in the under-
taking. In 1831, the capital was increased to £250,000 (or
$1,000,000,) — the government subscribing for £50,000 (or
$200,000,) stock by the casting vote of Air. Speaker McLean,
ever a friend to the work. In 1830, a committee of the
house recommended the assumjition of the work by the
province, and ultimate indemnilieation of the sli/ireholders,
as an act of justice to the latter, who had been the means
of conferring so great a boon upon the province; and in
1837 all government loans were converted into stock, and
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
175
a fartlier appropriation of £245,000 (or $98(),000,) to com-
plete the canal in a durable manner, with stone locks, was
authorized. In 1839, the purchase of the private stock
was authorized by an act to which the royal assent was
withheld; but, on the unanimous petition of the legislature,
this was given in 1840; and the legislature authorized a
grant of £500,000 (or $2,000,000,) to complete the work,—
only two members out of eighty opposing the grant, — a
striking contrast to the state of feeling in 1834, when the
compan}' were saved from ruin only by the casting vote of
Speaker McLean. Doctor Strachan, archdeacon of York,
and member of the legislative council, the present bishop
of Toronto, was always a lirm supporter of the woi'k, and
by his vigorous pen contributed in no small degree, as enrly
as 1825, in putting the true scope and bearing of this
important enterprise before the countrj'-. Hon. \V. B. Iv-ob-
inson, now a commissioner of the Canada Compaii}', as gov-
ernmen' commissioner and superintendent of the canal, and
subsequently as chief commissioner of public works for the
province, was ever a fast friend to this great work.
The old Welland Canal had forty wooden locks, one hun-
dred feet in length between the gates, and twenty-two feet
wide between the walls, with seven feet water on the sills;
and these endured from 1829 until 1845, by which time they
were fully worn out. Tlie section of the canal was twenty-
six feet wide at bottom, fifty-six feet on water-line, and eight
feet depth of water. The cost of stone locks would alono
have consumed all the company's resources, leaving nothing
for excavations, dams, harbors, aqueducts, and bi'idg(>s; and
any attempt on that basis would have ruined the enterprise.
By taking a vessel, of over one hundred tons, from luko. to
lake, in 1829, at an outlay of a little over one million of dol-
lars, the company were sustained by the legislature — which
up to that period had never given them more than £50,000
(or $200,000,) at a time, but which, ten years later, voted ten
times as much for stone locks.
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176
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
It is impossible, at this day, fully to appreciate the vicis*
eitudcs of such an undertaking by corporate enterprise in
Upper Canada more than thirty years ago. We have only
the successes before us; — the refusals, disappointmunts,
sneers, and raillery suffered by the directors and. their
supporters are forgotten ; but, so long as the St, Lawrence
flows to the sea. Upper Canada will remember with pride
and affection the men who could, at so early a day, carry
such a vast enterprise to successful completion. Projects
for organizing joint-stock companies in Montreal, the com-
mercial metropolis of British North America, before 1820,
for the comparatively insignificant Lachine and Chambly
Canals, fell stillborn; and when the latter work was com-
menced by Lower Canada in 1831, with three-fourths of
the import duties levied on the consumption of the two
provinces in her treasury, it was suspended in 1835, and
only completed in 1843, — requiring more than twice the
time taken to open the Welland Canal. The Cornwall
Canal, commenced by Upper Canada in 1834, was suspended
in 1838 and not completed till 1843. If the provincial
governments, with all the increase in wealth and popiilation,
of 1835 over 1825, found such difficulties, we may infer
what the Welland Canal Company encountered and sur-
mounted, and thus more truly appreciate the result.
The enlargement and reconstruction commenced immedi-
ately after the union, and the new stone locks were ready for
passing vessels of the larger size, by way of the feeder, in 1845,
and the main route was opened through in 1850. Doubts
respecting the capacity of the Grand Eiver as a reservoir
have led to the lowering of the section between the Deep
Cut and Port Colborne, so as to make Lake Erie (which is
ten feet higher than the Welland Eiver) the feeder. This
lowering of the bottom, which is still in progress, is effected
by dredges, the water not being removed; and, therefore,
no further slides are anticipated.
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178 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
The magnitude of the work undertaken in Lake St. Peter,
by the Ilui-bor Commissioners of Montreal, may be esti-
mated from the fact that 3,000,000 cubic yards liave already
been removed by dredging, and that another million yards
must yet be dredged to give the intended depth of twenty
feet at low water, nnd a width of ciiannel of 800 feet.
It is an incident not generally known, a?id worthy of
record, that the foundation stone of the Locks at Ottawa,
for the liidean Canal, was laid by the celebrated, but un-
fortunate arctic voyager. Sir John Fraidclin.
STATEMENT
Showins; the amounts expcn'lcrl fi'din 1791 to 1301. in other public works con-
iiei'tcd with llie Navigation.
DESOniPTION. n r "it • _ o- ",'■ ■ Totul Cost.
Beruro Union. Since Lnion.
Liglifhoiisi-s. — Tppuf and Lower
Caiiiula $10.000.00.. $7S«t 223.11 . . 8793.223.11
Ottawa slides, .tc, f0f)7S77 01.. $fi!)7.877.fil
St. Maiirict! sii>l. s etc 242. oS 1.51 . . 242,.'J8'l..".l
Sasuonav '. 40.8l)r) O''. . 40.r.(i5 07
Trent arid Newcastle shdes, 352.1 13 SO. . 35-J,l 13.80
$1,333,440 99. .$1,333,440.99
Tiocal Wovlis — tapper Canada :
Ilail.ors .?42.0;0 00.. $(111,300 79.. Sr,«3.3fi0.76
liurlinuton Bay Canal 1 24,35000 . . ir,8.32() 00. . 232,')R2 ()()
Disjardins Canal, (estimated,).. 100.000.00 lOO.OOO.OO
Trent Inland .Navigation. 105,180.05.. 103,809.01.. 268,989.00
$431 ,536.05 . , $903,496.37 ..Si .335.032.43
Local Wnrl<« — T.iO\ver Cnnad.i :
Harbors and I'i. rs, $315,900.00. .S1.3SS.460.S5. .$1,704,308.35
Grand Total, $5,171,005.37
Summing u]) the ju'ovincial, municipal, and corporate ex-
penditure of Canada, under the three heads of Po.VDS,
Navicatio.v, and IIatlway; we find that in round num-
bers the first have cost $11,000,000; the second, $21,000,-
000; and the Canadian interest in the last, is at least $30,-
000,000; or a total of over $60,000,000. ^['liis sum al.^o, i.s
about the measure of the public debt of the Province, — so
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
179
that, setting oflf what has been expended on pubhc worka,
out of revenue, against what has been borrowed for other
purposes, — we can not lay claim to the possession of any
which have yet been paid for.
SCALE OF NAVIGATION.
In commencing the Lachine Canal, in 1821, on a larger
scale than those in progress by New York, Lower Canada
no doubt supposed she was undertaking all which the
circumstances of the case required. In fact, both Upper
and Lower Canada were under tlie delusion that equal
facilities in the shape of ar'ificial navigation would give the
St. Lawrence witii its short canals the advantage over the
Hudson with its 'ong ones. They afterwards discovered
that it was to be compc;ition between the attractions
offered by rival seajjorts and their ocean aspect, rather than
between the inland routes by which these were reached;
that when the Canada route would have the patronage of
one hundred thousand, the American would have that
of one million; in short, that it would require the develop-
ment of all the superiority of which the St. Lawrence
route was capable, to counterbalance its political and geo-
graphical disadvantages.
In comparing Montreal with New York, the great superi-
ority of the latter in shipping accommodation, in cheap
export rates, ready sale of large quantities, and especially
in the supply of back freights to the inland craft, as well
as in the control which the capital of the Atlantic States
exercises over the exports of the Westerii ones — are reasons
sufficient to account for the preference which has been
given to the latter. But another reason for the slight effect
hitherto produced by our canal expenditure, is that all the
great American public works were prospectively constructed
in advance of the demands of the country; that they have*
hitherto been more useful for the purpose of expediting the
12
M
11:11
180
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
settlement of tlie interior than as affording an outlet for an
existing commerce ; and that, until 1860, the carrying ca-
pacity of the canals and railways has generally exceeded
the wants of the country. With this conuition of affairs,
railways, supported by a passenger traffic, and desirous of
raising their stock quotations by swelling their gross re-
ceipts at any cost, have worn out their iron in carrying
freights at non-paying rates. While the stream of com-
merce is weak it can easily be diverted ; but when it over-
flows, capacity must exert its influence so long as there is
intelligence and ability to make the proper use of it. If
the cor petition had been confined to the water routes, that
by the St. Lawrence would ere this, from sheer necessity,
have been better patronized; but the premature birth of a
railway system before the exislience of a legitimate railway
business — a system which was hungering for the coarse
staples of export — dissipated the traffic, before even the
Erie Canal was overtaxed, by offering facilities which could
not be equaled on the water, and rates which could
not be afforded on the land. Moreover, a legitimate winter
traffic — in exports to which an extra price obtained, or
interest saved, counterbalanced extra freight — has enabled
the railways to remove, during that season, much of the
produce on which the canals relied.
The further enlargement of the Welland Canal has been
agitated for several years, but as the question has presented
itself as one of convenience and economy of transport, rather
than of insufficiency for tonnage, — it has made little pro-
gress. Larger locks would admit the larger class of vessels
now excluded, and thereby somewhat cheapen freights; but
until the capacity of the present canal is exhausted, and a
better return on the investm^^nt guaranteed, it is not proba-
ble that any determined action will be taken. This ques-
tion must be, moreover, mainly influenced by international
relations; and by the probability of the St. Lawrence be-
'I
r-irfnni
Uii
TRAVEL AND TRAA'SPORTATION.
181
coming a route for western imports as well as exports. If
Chicago outgrows her commercial vassalage to New York,
so that the West is permitted to buy as well as sell in Mon-
treal, Canada can afford to enlarge her avenues to the sea-
board. Hitherto we have reaped little but a barren reputa-
tion for all our cosmopolitan exertions in delivering the
West from the monopoly of thj New York canals. Up to
1845, and before our St. Lawrence canals were opened,
foreign salt was excluded from western packing-houses, by
a toll, on the Erie Canal, of nearly three dollars per barrel,
and Nova Scotia plaster from Western canals by a toll of
over three dollars per ton. Even now. New York, in order
to protect her own products, charges foreign salt five times,
and foreign gypsum three times as much as the domestic
article. Millions of dollars have been saved to the Western
country by the reduction of tolls on the Erie Canal since
18-45, and though some of this is due to railway competi-
tion,— yet, on the quantity of wheat alone, which was ship-
ped by canal from Buffalo in 18G1, the reduction in tolls
over those of 1845, amounts to nearly a million of dollars.
The down toll upon a barrel of flour, is now 15 cents, and
the up toll on 100 lbs. maide, 26 cents, — less than in 1845.
The St. Lavvrence canals were designed for side- wheel
steamers; the Welland Canal for sail- vessels and screw
steamers. The number of sail-craft employed on the lakes,
American and Canadian, is one thousand two hundred, and
the whole number of steamers is three hundred and seventy,
of which about one hundred are tugs, and which may,
therefore, properly be assigned to the sail fleet. Of the I'c-
maining two hundred and seventy, one hundred and fifty
only are side- wheel boats, including ferryboats, and river and
lake steamers which do not navigate canals. This proves
that in a short canal connectinglonglinesof deep waterand.sai7
navigation, and with the great amount of lockage of the Wel-
Imd Canal, provision for side-wheel steamers is as unneccs-
\\\
m
.y|IWu*«-~
li
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182
TRAVEL AKU TRANSPORTATION.
sary as it would be inconvenient. The mammoth side-wheel
steamers can not pay; they were the creation of rival rail-
way routes as an attraction for passengers, — were sustained
as long as possible by railway capital or railway receipts;
but now they are, with two exceptions, either rotting at the
railway, docks or have gone to sea. Any attempt to accom-
iiKxlate such experimental or exceptional craft, either in the
St. Lawrence or Welhmd canals, would be as impracticable
as absurd. They can not carry freight profitably; and,
while railways are in existence, they could not retain their
passengers in a canal. If our canals were enlarged for such
boats they would not use them, except to shift their routes,
or in case of a sale. It is desirable for the strength, safety,
and facility of handling the gates, that the width of the
locks should not be unnecessarily increased; and there is a
great waste of time, as well as of water, in filling a large
k)ck in order to pass a small vessel. Moreover, if the
width of the lock is increased, the whole trunk of the canal
should be widened proportionally.
What<3ver may prove to be the ultimate demands of the
trade, the dimensions of the locks will be governed by sail
find screw vessels, and the preposterous dimensions required
to enable one of the obsolete railway steamers to surmount
the three hundred and thirty feet lockage of the Welland
Canal must be abandoned.
The St. Lawrence, from its strong current, is a steam
navigation, and the peculiar facilities afforded for passengers
and freight going down by the rapids, require that its locks
should pass side-wheel steamers of moderate dimensions.
Any future enlargement here will be to provide for increase
in 'the length, and draft of water of the boats. A diminu-
tion of ten feet in the width from that of the Cornwall
Canal has already been made, and the locks arc now wide
enough for such side-wheel steamers as the route requires,
and wider than is needed for screws; but if increased depth
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
be afforded, an increase in the length for screw steamers or
sailing cruft may be in the future. There remains, however,
to be first determined the important question whether the
inland business is to be done by through-boats, or by tran-
shipment at Kingston. It is probable that river cralt may,
with less time and outlay of cajjital, receive the grain from
the sail- vessel whose proper sphere is the lakes.
Ten years ago the tonnage of flour going to the seaboard
was three times as great as that of wheat — now the propor-
tions are reversed — and in addition to this, the largely in-
creasing quantities of corn gives such a prej^onderance to
the grain trade that elevaters and portage railways are
called into play and transhipment is no longer the un
mixed evil it was considered to be.
The Civil "War has turned Western Canadian exports
down the St. Lawrence — more grain having reached Mon-
treal in 1861 and 1862, than in all the previous years since
the opening of the canals — but theee have not benefited by
this diversion in consequence of the abolition of the tolls,
in May, 1860, whereby about $645,000 has been transfericd
from the Provincial treasury to the forwarders — doubtless
to compensate them for the injury which the Grand Trunl
railway inflicted on thcni when carrying produce with the
aid of provincial funds.
Tlic Welland Canal locks pass a sail-vessel registered as
higli as four hundred tons, with a carrying capacity of
17,500 bushels of wheat. The St. Lawrence locks pass a
side-wheel steamer about seven hundred tons register, with
a carrying capacity of about four thousand barrels of
flour.
The canal system of Canada may be said to embrace four
distinct routes; but, as all are connected, any number of
them may be combined. They are, —
1 The St. Lawrence route;
2. The Ottawa route;
fi
. if'!
184
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
3. The Cbamplain route;
4. The Lake route, or Wclland Canal.
The first three terminate at tide-water; the last may be
said to terminate in Lake Ontario, or its extension to Prcs-
cott, because the great majority of the vessels which pass
the "Wclland Canal do not also pass the St. Lawrence. A
vessel with twenty-six feet beam may proceed to sea, from
any of the upper lakes, by the route of the Welland and
St. Lawrence canals; but she can not enter Lake Cbamplain
with more than twenty-three feet, or pass down the Ottawa
route with more than eighteen feet beam. She may carry
ten feet draft into Lf.ke Ontario, but must lighten to nine in
descending the St. Luwrer.ce; and, if her other dimensions
were reduced, she could carry five feet down the Ottawa,
and six feet into Lake Cbamplain. From Lake Ontario, a
vessel of forty-four feet beam may proceed to sea. The Cham-
bly Canal will not admit deep vessels from the lakes, but it
is more than sufficient for boats from the Ottawa, and Inrgcr
than the canal which connects Lake Cbamplain with the
Hudson. The St. Ours lock has been constructed on the
scale of the St. Lawrence canals; but the enlargement of
the Chambly Canal has not been undertaken, — partly be-
cause it has been pro})osed to supersede it, for western trade,
by a canal from some point near Montreal to St. Johns, on the
liicbelieu,in orderto savetbedetourof one hundred milesvia
Sorel; and partly because any enlargement would not pro-
duce its full effect until it was carried through to the Hud-
son, which can only be done by the state of New York. A
canal which would admit the craft of the upper lakes into
Cbam})lain by the shortest and cheapest route, would place
Boston (via Burlington) and New York (via Whitehall) in
the same relation to the West which they now enjoy through
the more distant ports of Ogdensburg and Oswego, re-
gpectively, and thus add to the St. Lawrence canals that
portion of American traffic now given only to the Wclland.
ill'il
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOH.
185
Whether it forced ot invited a passage through to the
Hudson or not, it could not fail to aid the canals above it,
and is a necessary corollary to the system — unless it be de-
termined to exclude the St. Lawrence canals from the
benefit of that American transit trade which is the chief
support of the "Well and. So long and as often as New
York and New England are better markets for western ex-
ports than other countries, these exports will go there; and,
of course, by American if they can not by Canadian routes.
For transatlantic trade, our canals offer a communication
with the lakes, the inland portion of which is saperior
to that via New York ; but the sea portion, inferior in rates
of freight and insurance. Increased capital, by increasing
trade, alone will equalize the routes. Political considera-
tions may, however, exert an influence which can not be
foreseen; but the route exists, and, if required, can be made
use of to any extent by the application of that capital
which now su.stains its rivals.
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TEAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION.
RAILWAYS.
187
More than two hundred years ago, or about a.d. 1630,
one Master Beaumont ruined himself in coal raining, but
has been immortalized by the biographer of George
Stephenson as the first man that formed a railway : for
although his rails were of wood, and the wheeled vehicles
were drawn by horses, yet the principle of the railway was
there. These tramways were in use a century before iron
was employed in them, which event is supposed to have
taken place about 1738.
The birth of the Steam Engine was naturally followed
by propositions to convert it into a locomotive for com-
mon roads ; and between 1763 and 1800, Cugnot in France,
Evans in the United States, Symington in Scotland, and
Murdoch and Trevethick in England, experimcTited with
steam carriages. The latter, in 1804, was the first to put
the locomotive where it properly belongs, on the railway,
but the wheels being " roughed" in order to " bite" the
rail, they fairly devoured it ; and though possessing some
speed and a power to draw, this arrangement was almost
immediately abandoned. Blenkinsop, in 1812, successfully
introduced a locomotive with pinion wheels working into
a racked rail, which drew thirty coal wagons at three
and a quarter miles per hour. In 1813, Blackett, a col
liery owner, discovered (by simply trying tlic experiment)
that tlie adhesion of a smooth wheel on the plain rail was
Bufiicient for traction, and thus the first great step toward
efiiciency was gained. The locomotive, notwithstanding
these strides, was still a crude and almost useless midline
until George Stephenson, at this stage, applied his emi-
nently practical mind to the subject. His first engine,
however, though the most successful that had yet been
constructed, showed at the end of a year's work an economy
only equal to that of horsepower, and then it was, in 1815,
that Stephenson applied the exhaust steam to the chimney,
and by one stroke more than doubled the powei of the
';i,/l'
188
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOBTAnOJS.
engine. The discovery of the steam-blast was the second
and most important stride in the railway system. The
waste steam instead of, as before, putting into the air,
after having done its work, was turned up the smoke-stack,
immensely increasing the draught, and therefore the pro-
duction of steam in proportion to the speed, so that —
The faster she goes
The harder she blows —
and vice versa. Persevering in his determination to over-
come all obstacles, Stephenson got rid of the superfluous
machinery of his predecessors, and made his engines direct
acting, while he increased the adhesion by connecting the
other wheels with the driving ones ; — and thus, as early as
181(3, c*)'istructed engines which, strange as it may appear,
were "in regular and useful work, in 1858, conveying
heavy coal trains at the speed of five or six miles the hour,
probably as economically as any of the more perfect locomo-
tives now in use." Notwithstanding this early demon-
Btratiou of its practicability, it was not until the opening
of the Liverpool and Manchester Kailway, in 1830, that the
success of the locomotive was aduiitted. So Ions: s^s rail-
ways were restricted to short lines in the collier}' districts,
power was more important than speed ; but when for the
first time about to be applied on an extensive scale to
general traffic, so little impression had fifteen years of con-
stant use at the Killingworth colliery made upon tlie
public mind, that the Directors of the Liverpool and Man-
chester Eailway were unable to decide whether their line
should be worked by fixed or locomotive power. Tliey
had indeed avowed Stephenson to phice one of his engines
on the line, in 1829, to assist in its construction ; but
though this was working under their eyes, and thougli
more than one deputation had visited the colliery railways,
on which locomotives had been successfully at work for
years, it was evident that the machine of that day was
Dioro valuable for what it promised to those who could see,
TKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
189
than for what it was. Tredgold declared in favor of
fixed engines. Telford could not say whether even these
would succeed, or that horses should not be used. In
this dilemma the directors commissioned Messrs. Walker
and Rastrick to visit the collieries and report on the
question. They recommended the stationary reciprocat-
ing system as the best I Against all this array of talent
George Stephenson, the fireman, at a shilling a day — the
mender of clocks and of his sweetheart's shoes, the em-
broiderer of pitmen's button-holes — alone stood firm, lie
knew he was right, and would not be silenced; for though
officially worsted, he, aided by his illustrious son Ilobert,
successfully exposed the fallacy of the arguments used
against the locomotive, and induced the directors to take
the sensible course of offering a premium of £500 for a
machine which should travel ten miles the hour, be safe,
and unobjectionable as to weight, cost, &c.
The locomotive had been condemned on the assumption
that the speed could not be increased without a loss of
power — Stephenson asserted that by the action of the
steam-blast the power increased with the speed ; that in
fact all that was necessary to make the slow colliery
engines fast ones, was to have a boiler capable of generat-
ing steam as rapidly as the increase of speed required.
On the day appointed, the 6th October, 1830, four
engines entered the list, two only of which, Ericsson's
" Novelty," and Stephenson's " Rocket," distinguished
themselves. The former ran at the rate of twenty-four
miles an hour, but depending on a blower to keep up
the draught, this gave out and she failed. The Rocket,
which was the first ready, ran at tlie then astonishing rate
of thirty and thirty-five miles the hour, — had no break-
down, and carried off the prize, as well as efiectually dis-
posed of the twenty-one fixed engines, with the engine-
houses, ropes, &c., which the enunent engineers had de-
clared indispensable to the working of the line. This
result was accomplished by adopting the multitubular
^i^M^MN'ki'
190
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
boilor for the locomotive, which is the third and last <^reat
principle in the progress of the railway.
Since that inemorable day when the father of rail-
ways ''delivered himself' (as one of his opponents on the
board exclaimed, with hands upraised in astonishment),
the present generation has seen over 50,000 miles of rail-
way constructed, at a cost of about four thousand milHons
of dollars, the greater portion of this mileage being upon
this continent.
CANADIAN RAILWAYS.
Canada owes her first railway as well as her first steam-
boat to Montreal. In 1831, when the news of the success of
the Liverpool and Manchester road came across the water,
measures were taken to obtain a charter, which was grant-
ed on 25th February, 1832, for the construction of a rail-
way from Laprairie on the St. Lawrence to St. John's, a
village above the rapids of the Richelieu River, the outlet
for the waters of Lake Champlain. The length was six-
teen miles, and the capital £50,000, in 1,000 shares of
£50 each, or a little over £3,000 per mile. The work was
commenced in 1835, opened with horses in July, 183G, and
first worked with locomotives in 1837. It was a ^'strap-
rair' road until 1817, when the heavy T iron was laid.
/ The next movement was a premature one, in U])per
^ Canada. A charter was obtained, 6th March, 183-1, for a
Railway from Cobourg to any point on Rice Lake ; and
though the distance is no greater than that between La-
prairie and St. John's, no less than £400,000 capital was
provided. In the same year a charter was granted to the
London and Gore Railway Company, for a road from
London to Burlington Bay, to be extended to the naviga-
ble waters of the Thames and Lake Huron. Tiiis was the
legislative beginning of that important line the Great
Western Railway.
/ The first railway actually constructed in Upper Canada
was by the old " Erie and Ontario Company," and was
KJ
TKA.VEL AND TRANSPOBTATION.
191
desigied to restore the ancient portaj^e ronto around
the Falls of Niagara, between Queenstown and Chippewa,
which had been superseded by the Welland Canal. Tiiis
line was chartered in 1835, and was opened in 1839, as a
horse railway, the steepness of the grades near Queens-
town being beyond the capacity of locomotive power of
that day ; and as it stopped at the bank of the Niagara, over
one hundred feet above the water level, it fell into disuse.
In 1852 the charter was amended, and the line altered so
as to run from Lake Ontario at Niagara, to Suspension
Bridge and the Falls of Niagara.
Between 1832 and 1845 over a dozen charters were
granted in the two provinces, none of which, except the
horse railway just mentioned, were followed up; and the
Laprairie road continued the sole representative of the
system, using locomotives for ten years, or until 1847. In
1845 the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway Company
was chartered, to connect with the " Atlantic and St. Law-
rence," an American company from Portland. This road,
though an international rather than a Canadian one, be-
came, by subsequent amalgamation, part of the Grand
Trunk ; and is, therefore, the beginning of that extensive
line. It is worthy of remark, that up to this time the railway
efforts of Montreal had been directed to divert the trade of
Canada to American cities, her rivals as seaports. In
1846 the first look westward was made in the commence-
ment of the Lachine Railway, but this was undertaken
rather as a suburban portage road than as part of the
main western line. Although some thirty cliarters had
been granted up to 1850, the only roads on which any
work had been done were the Laprairie, St. Lawrence and
Atlantic, Lachine, St. Lawrence and Industry, in Lower
Canada ; and the Erie and Ontario in Uj)per Canada.
Many of these charters have been allowed to drop ; and,
with the exception of the corporations named, nearly all
those relating to roads since built, were extended and
amended before any work was commenced. In 1850 the
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192
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Ottawa and Prcscott TCailway was aiithorized, and the
line was opened in December, 1854:.
/ Tlie first railway in Upper Canada on which locomotives
were used was the Northern, from Toronto to Bradford,
opened in June, 1853 ; yet in 1860, only seven years from
that date, about three hundred locomotives were thunder-.. ,
ing and bellowing over the upper province, between thei*H
/ Ottawa and Lake Huron.
V Of the fifty-six charters granted up to June, 1853, only
twenty-seven were acted upon, and in twenty-five cases tlie
roads have been completed ; the other two (the AVoodstock
and Lake Erie and the Hamilton and Port Dover) are yet
unfinished. By amalgamation or leasing, the Grand Trunk
and Great Western have swallowed up nine out of these
twenty-five chartered and completed roads, there being
now only sixteen distinct railways in the whole province.
Since 1853 only three new charters have been acted upon,
viz., Preston and Berlin, Three Rivers and Arthabaska,
and Peterboro' and Chemung Lake. The last is com-
pleted ; the first was completed and opened for a time,
but is not now in use, and the second is neai'ly coraplt't<xl.
The province has now 1,906 miles of railway. 1
ilV
>\ ev «. r,
>00 of
under
■852.
done
iles in
sixty
which have been opened within the last tot
the impetus given by the railway ]r ' '•^'
Of these 1,906 miles, the Granc^
have 872 miles within the prov'
all the other companies. O^" o last,
miles, owned by four companies, .. -enot vow in operation.
Canada has more miles of railway than S( jtland or Irelaad,
or any of the New England States, ai d is only exi ided
in this respect by five States in America, viz.. New York
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ind'ana, and Illinois. Of her totii
railway expenditure, which exceeds one hundred inilliono
of dollars, about thirty millions have been supplied by the
government and municipalities. The foil wing tables will
show the leading statistics of Canadian railways, from offi-
cial sources, as far as returns have been made.
3
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RAILWAYS OF CANADA.
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I
TEAVEL AND TKAN8P0RTATI0N. 197
GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY.
Canada had scarcely completed her magnificent system
of canals when the rapid extension of the American rail-
ways, projected in all directions over the great grain ro
gion lying between the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the
lakes, warned her that a new and formidable rival had
appeared ; and that further and greater exertions would
be required — not merely to enable her to continue a com
petitor for western trade with the whole Union, but to
maintain her own proper status in comparison with tlie
individuLl commonwealths of the North. Stretching for
nearly one thousand miles along the frontier of a nation
ten times more numerous — herself the chief representative
on this continent of the first empire in the world — this
province has had imposed upon her duties and tempta-
tions, far greater in proportion than those of the most im-
portant of the associated States commercially opposed to
her. Without a perennial seaport, and with her early
trade restricted by imperial navigation-laws and custom
regulations, she had no foreign commerce accumulating
capital ; and wanting this commerce and this capital, and
confined to her own market, as well as discouraged by the
traditionary colonial policy of the mother country, be-
sides being always overstocked with the products of
cheaper labor and capital, she could have no manufac-
tures, and consequently no capital for investment in rail-
ways. Moreover, she did not possess that ti-ade and travel
which could make railways profitable, and thus invite ex-
ternal aid. But, iioblesse oblige — the force of position
made riiilways a necessity, if their construction could in
any legitimate way be brought about ; the more so, be-
cause it would have been impossible without them to have
kept at home her most valuable population — the young,
vigorous, and ambitious natives, " to the manner born,"
while in eight of a people speaking the same language,
: I
198
TBAVEL AifD TKAN8P0BTATI0N.
and having abundant facilities for developing an almost
unbounded fertility, open to all comers.
"When Montreal, therefore, was arrested half-way in her
single-handed attempt to push a railway to Portland, and
even the Great Western, which had been years under con.
tract, could not move, tlio legislature, on the 30th of May,
1849, passed an act by which the province guaranteed
(as a loan) the interest only, on the sum required to com-
plete any railroad of seventy-five miles or more in length,
of which one-half had been already made by the pro-
prietors.* This act, which was of material service to the
Portland and Great Western railways in their preliminary
stages, was insufficient, and did not produce any com-
mencement of the intermediate sections of the Trunk
line between Montreal and Hamilton. In 1851 a bill
was passed, providing for the construction of a main
trunk line, and restricting provincial aid to the same.
Tills act of 1851 looked to possible aid from the imperial
government, in the form of a guaranteed loan — an oifer
having previously been made by Earl Grey to assist the
colonies in that manner, to the extent required to con-
struct a military line between Halifax and Quebec. A
proposition was to be made to extend this boon to the con-
tinuation between Quebec and Hamilton, in order that
Canada as well as the lower colonies might be traversed
by the road built with Imperial aid ; and in this event the
trunl line was to be undertaken by the province as a
public work — or so much of it as the Imperial guarantee
might be obtained for. The bill provided, in the second
])lace, that it' this guarantee were not obtained, the prov-
ince would undertake the work on hor own credit, pro-
vided the municipalities would bear half the expense ; and
• This step was a repetition of the legislation of Upper Canada in 1837,
before the Union — that province having voted tlio Great Western Railway
£3 for every £1 of private stocic subscribed, to the extent of £200,000.
In default of repayment, the receiver-general could levy on the Gore and
Western Districts.
Iw«
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
109
as a last resource, if both these plans fiiiled, the local com-
panies, wliich had been formed on the strena;th of the
guarantee to attempt the different sections, were to be al-
lowed to try their hand. This bill also extended the pro-
vincial guarantee to the principal as well as the interest
on one-half the cost, and to this extent substituted provin-
cial debentures for railway bonds, while it allowed the aid
to be issued when companies had expended half of the
cost, including land, instead of completing half the length
of their lines.
The imperial government having declined to aid tlie
particular route demanded by tlie colonists, no attempt
was made by the Canadian envoy to carry out the second
plan of the bill of 1859 — that is, to construct the Grand
Trunk as a public work, in connection with the munici-
palities.
This change of programme was in consequence of prop-
ositions made to him while in London by English con-
tractors of great wealth and influence.* It may be said
in defence of this step, that the municipalities were not,
like the province, irrevocably committed ; that uncertainty
existed as to the co-operation of some of them, and that, in
any event, time would be required fully to embark them
in the scheme. On the other hand, it was charged that
the Canadian envoy broke off negotiations with the impe-
rial government at the Instigation of the contractors — who
had already been at the colonial office in the position of
competitors with the colonies for the privilege of contivl-
ling an expenditure of such magnitude, to be guaranteed
by the British treasury. It was also believed that a pow-
erful though indirect influence, wielded by these contract-
ors, materially contributed to the adverse position assumed
* It is important to note, that if Canada did not construct bor Trunk Rail-
way without involving Englishmen (and women) in ruin, it was because
Englishmen would have it so. Moreover, the demand came from such a quar-
ter, that to those familiar with the resources of these " operators," it might
have been extremely difficult for her to have gone into the n»oney market oc
her own account, against their opposition.
P
■}
! I
\m.L'LiJii*^'''
,i}IS
200
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
by the new colonial minister on a question to which the
imperial government had, by his predecessor, been so fur
committed. The course of the Canadian envoy can only
be defended on the assumption that a refusal was inevita-
ble, and that a proper appreciation of his position led him
to anticipate it. No more unfavorable impression would
probably have remained, had not his name subsequently
appeared as the proposed recipient of a douceur from the
contractors, in the shape of £50,000 of paid-up stock in the
capital of the company, which, however, he repudiated
when it was announced.
Previous to 1851, Canadian securities had no status of
their own in England, the canal loans having been ne-
gotiated under an imperial guarantee. When provincial
bonds had no regular quotations, it is not surprising (how-
ever much so it may now appear), that as late as 1851, the
bonds of the city of Montreal were sold in London at thirty
per cent, discount. At the great exhibition of 1851, Can-
ada made her debut so favorably, that the keen frequent-
ers of 'Change Alley consented to chaperon tlie interesting
stranger — confident that a good thing could be made out
of so virgin a reputation — especially after the imperial
government had a second time proposed to indorse for
her.
No machinery could be better devised for launching a
doubtful project, such as was the Grand Trunk llailway
of Canada, viewed as a commercial undertaking, than that
possessed by the colossal railway contractors, the modern
and unique results of the railway era. Extensive opera-
tions, involving purchases of land from the nobility and
gentry, and weekly payments of wages to the middle and
lower classes, over hundreds of miles of country; large or-
ders to iron masters, wood merchants, and engine and car-
riage builders, in all parts of the kingdom ; with bunking
transactions, and sales of securities of the heaviest descrip-
tion in the capital itself, gather round the eminent con-
tractors a host of dependents and expectants, in and out of
'Hi-
TRAVEL AlTD TEANSPORT ATION.
201
Parliament, by a skilful, and, it is to be feared, sometimes
unscrupulous use of whom, fortunes are made, and ap-
pointments, and titles even conferred. It does not follow
that all, or even the majority of those who are thus made
use of, are in any degree culpable. Setting aside the
effect of pressure from constituents, many an honest man
is moved by an unseen lever ; and none know better than
railway practitioners the value of a man qui facit per
alium where he cannot per se.
Although some opposition was experienced from the
promoters of the local Canadian companies — who had
borne the burden of the project hitherto, and now saw
another about to reap its benefits; and from the few who
clearly foresaw the cruel injury which would be inflicted
on the innocent, and the consequent responsibility of Can-
ada, there was little ditficulty in reconciling the provincial
legislature and the municipalities to the abandonment of
the joint provincial and municipal plan of constructing
the road. The latter were shown that they could now de-
vote their means to local improvements ; and to those re-
quired members of the legisUiture who failed at once to
perceive the great advantages to the country at large at-
tendant upon the importation of so much English capital,
the question was brought home individually in such a
way that all scruples were removed. To prepare the
scheme for the larger appetite of the London market, itft
proportions were extended from the 500 miles between
Quebec and Hamilton, to upwards of 1000 miles, extend-
ing from Lake Huron to the Atlantic ; although provis-
ion had already been made for the former by tlie Great
Western, and for the latter by the New York and Boston
lines approaching Montreal. Amalgamations with existing
lines in Canada, and the lease of a foreign one, were made
upon the most reckless and extravagant terms; and lastly,
having whipped in the requisite financial indorsation in
London, the scheme was successfully launched by the con-
tractors most opportunely, just before the Crimean war.
., |i
::i Ji
202
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
As the prospectus showed a probable dividend of eleven
and a half per cent., the stock rose to a premium 1 For
this preinium a discount wa3 substituted, as soon as exer-
tion was slackened by success, which rapidly increased on
the breaking out of the war, and became hopelessly con-
firmed as soon as the London, Liverpool, Mant^hester, and
Glasgow merchants read the postscripts of thoir Canadian
mercantile correspondents ; nor could any subsequent ef-
fort of the company, with the aid of all the great names
now fairly harnessed in, drag the unwieldy vehicle out of
the slough into which, apparently by its own dead weight,
it so rapidly sank. This sudden depression, before any
trial of the scheme had been made, was the natural result
of that reilection which ought to have preceded its recep-
tion ; and is important in itself, as proving that the English
shareholders were either self-deceived or deceived by their
own countrymen, the promoters in London, rather than by
any importance which they attached to the action of Can-
ada ; because no practical demonstration was waited for
to prove the real value of the stock. The fact that they
did not wait fur this, proves by their own act that they
were not warranted iu believing the prospectus, although
they have since founded a claim against Canada upon the
faith they put in it.* A little reflection was all that was
required to make that preposterous document harmless;
and wo can hardly bo held responsible for their exercise
of that reflection a few weeks ci/'ter, instead of at the time
of its publication.
Notwithstanding this early disrepute of the stock, the
character of the subscription list and wealth of the con-
tractors carried on the work until 1S55, when the com-
pany came before the Canadian Parliament "i/i for/nd
paujifrisp This was repeated in 1850, when for the first
time thoir contracts were submitted to public inspection.
* The7 really believed in men of their own country who did not believe in
the prospectus, but who had other reasons for indorsing it; and this explains
why their fai'ii was of such short duration.
TRAVEL AlfD TRANSPORTATION.
203
A grant of £900,000 sterling was voted in 1855, to enable
them to go on ; and in 1856 the province, which liad hither-
to stood in the position of a first mortgagee, to the extent
of its advances to the company, gave up this position and
went behind the shareholders, in order that the latter
might issue preference bonds to fill the vacated space;
and because they complained that Canada ought not to
exact her rights to their prejudice. The ordinary bond-
holders,— who, though they ranked after the provincial
mortgage, no doubt counted upon similar forbearance
when the proper time arrived, and tiierefore felt them-
selves virtually first mortgagees, — were effectually floored
by this preference coup d'etat,' nor can one fail to ad-
mire that lucky accident, or judicious foresight, which
made one dollar of the original provincial aid, practically
count as two to the future wants of the company : for the
provincial lien could only have been considered as of pros-
pective value by all parties, especially after the company,
which had paid the interest upon it out of capital un-
til 1857, formally declared their inability to continue to
do so. This was caused not only by want of receipts, but
by their having bound themselves to pay greater rents for
leased lines than they could earn from them, so that the
productive sections could not certainly do more than pay
this deficiency, and complete, equip, and maintain the
road. When thus virtually making the company a present
of over £3,000,000 sterling, the legislature re(piircd them
to expend £225,000 (or seven and a half per cent, of this
amount) upon branch lines connecting with the main
Trunk, a stipulation which the company have described
as one of the injuries inflicted upon them by the Canadians.
As section after section was opened, and no indications
of the eleven and a half per cent, presented themselves, the
difficulty was accounted for, first, by the want of western
connections, then by the non-completion of the Victoria
Bridge, and lastly, the want of rolling stock. The western
connections were obtained by promoting a company to con.
.1
i"
I
I
i^cM
204
TRAVEL AND TKAN8P0RTATI0N.
struct a line in Michigan, at a cost at least one-third more
than was necessary, and then leasing it at eight per cent, upon
this extravagant cost, after it had been demonstrated that It
could not earn its own working expenses. The only pos-
sible explanation of such an extraordinary proceeding, at
so late a date in the history of the company, is, that the
parties wlio furnished the money did so in good faith, for
the benefit of the whole enterprise, and that the work be-
ing situated in a foreign country, and constructed wholly
on Grand Trunk account, they were entitled to protection.
Also, that as this last and indispensable link was the gol-
den gate through which the treasures of the boundless west
were to pour over the Grand Trunk, and produce eleven
and a half per cent, dividends, eight percent, on their out-
lay was but moderate compensation to the corporate bone-
factors. The Victoria Bridge was completed, and then
the want of rolling stock was the only reason assigned
for the Avant of success ; but when it was remembered
that, by the Act of 1857, the conditions on which the prov-
ince surrendered her lien only remain in force while the
company " supply the said railway with Sufficient plant,
rolling stock, and appliances to work the same efficiently,"
and " so long as they maintain and work the same reg-
ularly," it was discovered that no more rolling stock was
necessary at present ; and at the same time the rumored
threats of stopping the road, unless the postal subsidy
were increased and capitali>ced, suddoidy ceased alto-
gether. AVhen at last all efforts failed, the conviction
forced itself on the hitherto infatuated proprietors, that
the anticipated traffic was not to be had upon any Cana-
dian route, except as a water-borne one which this rail
way was unable to divert.
A failure so magnificent, complete, and disastrous has
naturally led to recriminations ; and forgetting the part
played by Englishmen in the inception, and their almost
exclusive execution and management of the undertaking,
its British victims have attempted reclamations on the
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
205
province, on the ground of the " moral responsibility" in-
curred in accepting the tempting offers made lior. A very
large ])roportion of such claimants are effectually disposed
of by the fact that, having acquired their stock at some-
thing like one-fifth its cost to the real victims, and otlier
securities at proportionate discounts, long after the fallacy
of the prospectus was admitted, they can have had no im-
plied contract with Canada, "moral" or otherwise. If we
are bound to compensate, it can only be those who really
put faith in us, and gave the first impulse to our railway,
and not the bulls and bears of the stock exchange, — per-
haps the men who, having deceived and plundered their
own countrymen, have bought back the depreciated securi
ties, and now stand in dead men's shoes to intimidate and
revile Canadians — every one of whom bears by taxation
something more than a moral responsibility on account
of the Grand Trunk. Canadians did not originate this
Bclieme, and, left alone, they would have closed the gap in
their Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton without
greater cost tlian they have contributed to the Grand Trunk,
and without loss to any but themselves. This section was
all that was necessary, in a national point of view, as it
would have secured the connection of our chief seaports
with the remote west. But a member of the British Parlia-
ment, representing the wealthiest firm of contractors in
the world, crossed the Atlantic, applied to the Canadian
legislature for the necessary powers to bring out the gi-
gantic scheme on the London market, and taught the inex-
perienced colonists how to take advantage of their position.
The (Tovernor-y-eneral, either to immortalize his adminis-
tration, or acted upon, however innocently, by those influ-
ences in London which control appointments and peerages,
publicly implored the legislature not to shut the door in
the face of such proffered relief; and prepared an elaborate
statistical report, to accompany the prospectus, showing
the progress and resources of the colony. It was not pos-
Bible that a people ignorant of railways could resist such
r
,.iAiii«*'^
206
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
arguments or such temptations ; nor is it remarkable that,
knowiii<^ the marvellous effects of railways elsewhere, they
should be unable to discriminate between the prolital)le
and the unprofitable routes, especially when they were
assured of success from such experienced and influential
sources. TIkju^Ii they had just incurred a debt of millions
for canals, which were not directly remunerative, they
embarked in railways to a much greater extent, assuming
obligations which, could they hav^e foreseen the results,
they would not have done, even though English capitalists
had offered to invest two dollars to their one.
. CAUSES OP FAILURE.
The Grand Trunk scheme embraces so large a propor-
tion of the railway system of Canada, that its failure de-
serves investigation, and may be found in the following
considerations :
1. We have seen that while private enterprise had taken
up as intrinsically valuable, or supposed to be so, the rail-
ways leading from Montreal to Purtland, Boston, and New
York, and from Toronto and Niagara westward — the sec-
tions between Quebec and Toronto — the most prominent
portions of the Grand Trunk, as prepared for tlie English
market, were, though backed by a provincial guarantee,
left by the Canadians until the last, because it was felt that
no railway could successfully compete with such a naviga-
tion. The English projectors thought otherwise, because
their railwavs had beaten their canals : but no analoo'v
exists in the case of either system in the two countries.
Their railways have a different traf^c and climate, are
better made and cheaper worked, while their canals arc
but enlarged ditches compared with ours. The original
Canadian railway companies were organized on the basis
of portage roads working in connection with the naviga-
tion, besides forming a through line for general purposes ;
but the Grand Trunk vainly essayed competition with the
m
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
207
water, and disdained all connection with it between Mon-
treal and Lake Huron.
2. While the Canadian envoy in May, 1852, looked only
to a line between Montreal and Hamilton, the Eiiirllsh
Bchenie provided for an extension of both ends, of a cen-
tral line, itself never regarded as a promising one— the ex-
tensions, as a whole, being still more unpromising intrin-
sically than the centre ; evidently counting upon a through
traffic wliich should be more valuable than the local one.
The weak point in the scheme was, that these extensions
connected points already connected by better routes, and
between which no regular traffic existed, or was likely to
arise. The Canadian railway route between Detroit and
Boston, as compared with that via Albany, was an attempt
to travel the arc of a circle (and a more arctic one at
that) in competition with its chord. The scheme did not
possess the elements of success, either as a whole or in its
parts ; tlie failure was, therefore, inevitable, and in pro-
portion to the extension. The following statements which
show the receipts and exports by sea, via the St. Lawrence,
and the Grand Trunk Railway respectively, prove the
hopelessness of the contest between the rail and the river ;
and the insignificance of the winter operations of the
former, via Portland and Boston, in diverting exports from
the latter :
KECKIPTS OF WESTERN GRAIN AND FLOUR AT MONTREAL, lSfi2.
By water.
I5y G. T. Railway.
Total. Pr cunt. byG.T. li.
Grain, bus.
Klour, blls.
11,867,710
772.881
602,128
402.221
12.169.888 6..W
1,174,602 84.25
EXPORTS SEAWARD OP GRAIN AND FLOUR FROM MONTREAL, 1862.
By River St. Law-
rence.
By G. T. R'lw'y via
Portland A Boston.
Total.
Per cent, by G. T.
Raihviiy.
Grain, bus.
Flour, blls.
9,015,874
697,477
478,f>95
66,1^
9,493,9C9
663,600
f).3
9.96
3. The enterprise, unpromising as it always was to com-
1 ?
m
n;^
a
■ni!
208
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
petent and disinterested observers, was loaded down with
improvident leases of foreign lines. The Portland mil-
way was leased at six per cent, upon its cost, and required
the expenditure of over a million and a half of dollars to
make it workable ; yet with all the advantages of the Vic-
toria Bridge and western connections, the company have
not been able to earn more than two-thirds of the rent they
agreed to pay. Nothing but the greatest infatuation could
have led to the belief that such a road, with its heavy grades
and curves, and a scanty local traffic, could, amid winter
snows, do a through business, to waiTant the price paid
fur it. Tlie lease of the Michigan line we have already
noticed : this was so much the worse,in that the company
have not only been unable to earn any port' )n of the eight
per cent, rent, but have lost money in working it.
4. The purchase of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic line
at cost, though the stock had been sold at fifty per cent,
discount, was made on the assumption that it was com-
plete as f'lr as it went ; but, like the Portland end of the
same line, another millior of dollars or more was re-
quired to put it in efficient order. Besides this unexpect-
ed outlay on the existing road between Montreal and
Portland, about six millions of dollars were subsequently
required, to make up deficiencies in the contract provision
for those portions of the line constructed under the com-
pany's own auspices. Whatever allowance may be made
for heated imaginations, when estimating the prospective
business of the road, and deluding themselves with
the notion that itwould^as a whole, earn di^'idends of
eleven piid a half per cent., when none of its parts had
j^ravi^. .isly been considered as practicable without sub-
sidies, the railway men of the prospectus must have
known that this could not be done with three-i)er-cent. of
sidings, and the limited number of locomotives and car-
riages provided by the contracts ; and that the working
expenses could not be kept down to forty per cent. o+' all
the receipts which could be earned by such an equipment.
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTAnOK.
209
Tlie prospectus assured subscribers that the cost of the
railway was defined by contracts, whereby " any appre-
hension of the capital being found insufficient is removed,"
and which " secured a first-class railway, including sidings
ample rolling stock, and every requisite essential to !rs per-
fect completion ;" and that, " for the capital stated, the
proprietors are assured of a railway fully erpiipped and
complete in every respect, and free from any further
charges whatever !" The capital estimated by the ])ros-
pcctus was $47,500,000 ; the company, in 1800, showed
a balance sheet of $70,000,000 ; of this amount, about
$5G,00<J,000 is charged to capital account as the " cost of
consti'uction," the remainder is interest, rent, loss in work-
ing, &c., although eighty-five miles of the original )'oad
have not been constructed : and' after expending millions
in supplying omissions in the contracts and estimates, the
working expenses instead of forty, have exceeded eighty
per cent, of the gross receipts.
5. Not only did the contracts fail to provide " every es-
sential to the perfect completion of the road," but the pro-
visions they did contain were either not enforced or so
loosely complied witli, that the efficiency of the road has
been impaired, its working expenses increased, and all the
avaihible resources of the company liave been required to
supply deficiencies, and to repair damages consequent
upon this state of things. The bad quality of rails east of
Toronto, with the deficiency of ballast and sleepers under
them, have led to a destruction of rolling stock and prop-
erty (fortunately hitherto unaccompanied by loss of life)
which is unprecedented in the history of railways. No
doubt the force of circumstances, in a great measure, com-
pelled the company to accept a road very much inferior
to that origirftilly intended. The English contractors had
agreed to take two-thirds of their pay in stock and bonds,
and when these became depreciated by the discredit of tlio
company, they were in for a loss in discounts, which was
largely increased by the inexperience of some of their
llli<
fHii
210
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
agents, who, conducting large expenditures in a country new
to them, and having it in their power to place the company
in default and suspend the work, were masters of the situa-
tion, and naturally desirous, while carrying through their
enterprise, to diminish their loss as much as possible.
The system under which the road was constructed was a
vicious and illegitimate one, the order of things being
reversed from that in well-regulated corporate enterprises.
The only way in which an honest and elHcient construction
of any railway can be guaranteed, is that whore hona'
fide shareholders elect their directors, who appoint the
engineer and solicitors, and invite competition before
the contract is given out. Thus those who expect to
become the owners of the property have some control over
its formation. But in the case of the Grand Trunk, the
contractors assumed the risk of floating off the shares
and bonds in consideration of getting a contract upon their
own teruis, with a bcmrd of directors, and an engineer
and solicitor, of their own selection (and deriving their
rees and salaries through them), to carry them through
those all-im})ortant preliminary stages when the future
shareholders are irrevocably bound, aiul in too many cases
have their interests sacrificed, to those of the contractor.
And here there was the additional evil of a political
element. The contractors wielding a gigantic scheme which
traversed almost every county in the province, virtually
controlled the government and the legislature while the
exjKMuliture continued. The only supervision uiuler the
contract \\'hi(th would have affected their interests, was that
which the government and their majority in the legislature
could have insisted on. It was the interest of the com-
pany that in level country the road should be raised so as
to keep it out of water and snow; tnp. In hilly c-ountry it
should be carried as high over the valleys niul as dcisp into
the hills as was prudent, in order to diminish the gradients
and therefore the cost of working ; and that the stations
should be as near the business centre of the towns as pos-
•^ I
J
TRAVEL AND ITIANSPOETATION.
21
Bible, particularly in places on or near the competing
navigation. But it was the interest of the contractors to
keep the road as near the surface everywhere as the eon-
tract permitted, no matter how much it might be smothered
in winter and flooded in spring, — ^liow undulating it v:as,
or how frequent and severe the gradients became; and to
place the stations where land was cheapest, or, so as to
purchase political support thereby, or obtain a specu-
lation in building lots. It is in vain that magnilicent
tubular bridges and waj'-stations of stone are pointed to as
evidences of superiority, when the very backbone of the
railway, the track on which its receipts are to be earned,
is defective in location and construction. Better tliat the
stations had been but temporary sheds, and tliat tlieir cost
had been })ut into the road-bed, for these can be rebuilt at
any time ; but the latter must lie as it is, with all its im-
perfections on its head.
) It does not rest with the English public to charge upon
Canada all the disastrous results of the Grand Trunk. Tiie
prosjiectiis was not prepa^^3d in the province, nor did any
member of her government see it nntil it was issued.
Canada was not a stockhokler in the company; but as the
indorser for it, not of it, put four of her ministers on a
board, composed of eighteen directors, of whom six were in
London and twelve in Canada, eiglit of the latter being
really nominees of the English contractors. The Cana-
dians, as novices in railway matters, could not be censured
if they even believed all they were told by the promoters
of the railway ; nor could they be worse than other people
if they gave it a trial widiout believing in it; but there
nmst have been many men, and many editors in London
well versed in railways, not only English but American, who
thoroughly ai)preciatod the sclieme, as ore originated aiul
promoted for the money which could be made out of it by
men wliosc mission it is to prey upon their fellows. If these
were silent. Englishmen must blame their own watchmen
for not warniniT them ; besides, had they sought the real
14
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ftmfm^ft wxii*«miimirmi'm»3iswmimK»m»iMmiitnutmeKUBmtmim-
212
TKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
ijierits of the sclieme, they would have found them in the
discussions of the Canadian press and Parliament. These
were of such a character as to relieve Canada of any " moral
responsibility," and contrast favorably with the intelligence
or candor of the English press on the same subject. A
proposition to attach the contracts to the prospectus was
made, but voted down by the contractors' Uiajority in the
Canadian legislature. Wliy, when this was seen, did not
the English press caU for the contracts when tlie prospec-
t\is appeared, and tell their readers v»'hether tlie capital
would be sufficient, and analyze the scheme from American
data ? and why did they not show that the contractors
could, through their appointment of the company's engi-
neer, solicitors, and directors, give the subscribers ary
road they pleased, instead of the one described in the
prospectus ?
Among the minor causes which lie'ghtencd the failure
of the Grand Trunk, and deprived it of much of that sym-
pathy of which it stands so much in need, have been the
general extravagance and blundering in its management,
and the ridiculous presumption of some of the officials, in
a comiimnity in wliicu tliere is so little of a real aristo-
cratic element and so little room for a sham one. In an
enterprise of such magnitude, the salaries of its higher offi-
cials, no matter how liberal they were, woi'ld seem to have
little influence on results; and if these results were contincd
to the mere question of tlie difference in salaries they
would bo unimportant, particularly where the iucumbentr.
are worth what they cost. IJut, in the case under notice,
tlie eflect of princely salaries to chief officers was to
establish a general scale of extravagance, and a delegation
of duties and responsibilities, so as to turn tho head of the
recipients, and involve the comi)any in needless outlays, and
Josses greater than all the salaries ])aid u]>on the line. The
railway satrap sent out by tiie London l^oard, whoso salary
is only exceeded by that of the governor-general, naturally
considers himself the second person in the province j and,
charg
toul
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
213
as a consequence, the special commissioner sent out from
the same source, wifh the salary of the President of the
United States, to obtain more money from the province
under the veil of a postal subsidy, would deem himself the
second person on the coutinent, and therefore assume a
position commensurate with his importance, and indulge in
threats of destroying the credit of the province. Th^*-
salary of this commissioner is reported at $25,000, his
charge for expenses $12,000, and the cost of his special
trains at $G,000, making a total of $-43,000 on account of
one year. If only half of this be true, it is sufficient to pre-
vent Canadians increasing their own taxes in order to
afford the company the means of continuing such extrava-
gance. Men so much better paid than their confreres nat-
urally '/r.lue themselves much higher; can only be ap-
proached through successive doors, or be communicated
with through successive depiries, in a diminishing scale,
until the man who does the work is reached ; and can only
travel by special trains or in exclusive carriages, provided
with ;very luxury on an imperial scale, and with equal in-
difference to detail. Perhaps no circumctanc? has tended
more to mako the n anagement unpopular, and the liber-
ality sought for on accoTint of postal subtiidy impossible,
than this abusi*, of special trains and carriages by officials
of the corapar y intoxicated with the novelty of their posi-
tion. The bishops, and the judges of assize ; the most ven-
erable and respectable inhabitants of the country, as well
as tourists of the highest rank, are content to travel by
ordinary trains and in the usual carriages ; but ;;he upper
servants of the rail-vay company have burned the fuel, worn
the rails ard rolling-stock, deprived their fellow employes
of the needed Sunday's rest, and thrown the uholo freiglit
traffic of a single lino out of time (thus jeopardizing life and
property), in ordor that they may show their litMo brief
authority. Passengers have been turned out oC ^v sle -=ping-
cai in the dead of the night by the breaking of a whool, and
cr-iwded into the only remaining ca,rriage oi the train ex-
1'
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214
TBATEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
cept one, which, though large enough for fifty, was sacred
to a few railway magnates whose duty it was — and pleasure
it should have been — to treat the ejected passengers as their
guests, but who resolutely kept out the vulgar herd. It
seems absurd in such nabobs to plead poverty before our
legislature, or expect the men whose wives and daughters
have been so treated to support their petitions.
MUNICIPAL RAILWAYS.
The municipalities, relieved from contributing to the
Trunk Railway, were thus at liberty to embark in branch
lines, and some rushed headlong in, seduced by men who
saw how the thing was done in the Grand Trunk. Contrac-
tors controlled the board of directors and appointed the
engineer; a scamped road, barely practicable for traffic,
was made, on which the whole receipts for the present
generation must be applied before it can be considered
completed. To enable the municipalities to carry out their
loca improvements, the province virtually indorsed their
bonds by exchanging them for others, in which it acted
as a broker, undertaking to collect from the borrower and
pay over to the lender. Tlie by-laws by which counties,
cities, and townships voted their loans or subscriptions to
public works, required the approval of the governor in
council before they could take the benefit of the Municipal i
Loan Fund Act. This provision was intended as a check
upon extravagance, but the practical effect of it was to
place the members from every county and city, seeking to
avail themselves of the provisions of the act, at the mercy
of the ministry of the day. Those who were most subser-
vient obtained most money, and one village was allowed
to borrow three hundred dollars per head for every soul
of the population. Of course default was made in the in-
terest on such loans, and one delinquent produced others ;
the province as indorser in the mean time paying for them,
and in the end accepting, in lieu of the dues, an annual as-
TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0RTATI0N.
215
Bessment of five per cent. Althongh loans of this doubt-
ful character have been thus compromised, a rigid neu-
trality has been maintained toward those municipalities
which, like Hamilton, embarked in good faith in similarly
unfortunate enterprises upon their own unaided credit.
The following tables show that about six and a half mil-
lions of dollars have been contributed to railways by the
municipalities in Upper and Lower Canada, out of the
loan fund. Some three millions or more have been con-
tributed by municipalities which did not borrow from the
fund, so that the total investment by these bodies in rail-
ways cannot be far from ten millions of dollars.*
* Unfortunately, the municipalities do not make any return to Parliament
of their invcEtmenta in public works. This is the case also with road com-
panies and several other joint-stock corporations. No good reasons are
advanced why these bodies should be more favored than banks and r&il*
-.'Mm^lgliii-'
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216 TRAVEL AND
TKANSPOIITATION.
TABLE SHOWING TUB AMOUNTS TAKEN FROM THE MUNICIPAL
LOAN FUND BT
MUNICIPALITIES IN UPPER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES ONLY.
Population Populatioi
I
Arrears of Interest
MiinicipaUties. in 1S51.
in 1861.
Amount of loan.
due Dec. 31, 1861.
Town of Port Hope 2,476
4,161
$740,000.00
$312,303.r-'
To\vnship of Hope 5,299
5,883
60,000.00
25,802.56
Town of Niagara 3,340
2,070
280,000.00
148,974.02
" " Cobourg 3,871
4,975
500,000.00
31.3,420.01
Village of Chippewa 1,193
1,095
20,000.00
7,10971
Township of Bertie 2,737
3,379
40,000.00
8,873.36
" " Brantford. . . 6,410
6,904
50,000.00
2,428.11
Town of Brautford 3,877
6,251
500,000.00
186,754.87
Township of Wainfleet. . . 1,841
2,316
20,000.00
1,440.37
" Canboro. ... 1,151
1,252
8,000.00
330.80
Counties of Huron and ) qq 706
Bruce '
Townships of Moulton | « 0,0
and Sherbrooke ' ''''^^^
76,226
125,000.00
3,059
20,000.00
ViUage of Paris 1,890
2,373
40,000.00
172.23
City of Ottawa 7,760
14,669
200,000.00
100,000.00
113,411.37
62,625.53
Town of Preseott 2,15G
2,591
" " Woodstock 2,112
3,353
100,000.00
47,824.29
" " St Catharine's.. 4,368
6,284
100,000.00
47,748.27
Townsliipof Woodhouse. 2,894
3,703
10,000.00
31.04
" " Norwich.... 5,239
6,383
200,000.00
101,508.96
" " Ops 2,512
2,872
80,000.00
39,897.36
County of Elgin 25,418
32,050
80,000.00
35.95
City of London 7,035
11,555
375,400.00
100,000.00
155,412.56
'I'ownship of Windham. . 2,900
4,095
50,251.66
Town of Simcoe 1,452
1,858
51,964
lOO.OJO.OO
800,000.00
52,276.99
300,189.16
Counties of Lanark and } »^ hoo
Renfrew ^6,732
Town of Brockville 3,246
4,112
400,000'.00
187,432.01
Township of Elizabeth- | - oqq
town ) '
VillafT.) of Stratford
6,101
154,000.00
51,704.00
2,809
100,000.00
56,871.79
Town of Goderich 1,32S
3,227
100,000.00
35,174.92
" " iiarrie 1,007
2,134
5,076
12,000.00
80,000.00
2,504.09
13,400.12
" " Guolph 1,860
" ' Peterboro 2,191
3,979
Total,
100,000.00
27,274.12
$5,594,400.00$2,359,406.74
J
TBAVEL AND TKANSPOBTATION.
21 r
TABLE SnO WING THE AMOITNTS TAKKN FROM THE MUNICIPAL LOAN FUITD H"?
liUXIC.tPALITlES IN LOWER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES JNLY.
Popnlntion
Municipalities. in ISol.
County of Ottawa 22,903
" " Terrcboiino..26,;91
" ■ Shefford... .1G,482
" " Stanstcad...l3,898
" " Megantic... 13,835
St. Romuald do Faruliam|
Township of Sheflbrdf. . . 2,512
Town of Three Riveraf . . 4,835
Township of Granbyf . . . 2,392
" Boltonf 1,936
" ofStukelyNthf )„,„,
" ofStukelySthtP'^"^**'
Village of Fermoat|
Population
in isCl.
27,757
19,460*
17,779
12,258
17,889
3,712
6,058
3,271
2,526
. 2,820
Amount of loan,
$131,000.00
94,000.00
215,000.00
71,000.00
5,840.00
30,000.00
57,500.00
220,000.00
30,000.00
13,000.00
j 16,000.00
( 10,000.00
32,000.00
Arrears of Intorpit
due Doc. 31, IsOl.
$81,(40.1!)
00,198.17
6:!,340.5;i
17,581.02
;{,r)8o.,'>7
1 1,423.08
21,895.59
53,855.61
10,938.37
2,834.39
3,763.29
2,364.00
6,393.00
Total, $925,940.00 $343,208.41
This flagrant disregard of obligations, by so many tnu-
nicipalities, is not to be ascribed wholly to the inability
of some, and the example of such upon others ; nor to
any proneness to repudiation ; for these bodies have made
great and successful efforts to keep faith witli other credi-
tors, and have only failed in cases where the debt was
overwhelming. Little effort was made to pay the loan
fund, even during the most prosperous days of the corpo-
rations, chiefly becausu no attempt was made to collect : —
the example of the government in conniving at the default
being the ])rimo cause of its present magnitude. To press
a municipality was to drive it into opposition ; and rail-
way corruption had so thoroughly emasculated the leaders
of the people, that they had not virtue enough left to do
their duty. Moreover, at the time the money was borrowed
supporters of the government had industriously sowed the
impreesion that repayment would not be exacted, and
this view gained ground after the lien on the Grand
Trunk was abandoned. They could i\ot see why the law
of 1849, which treated all districts alike, should have been
repealed for the benefit of the wealthier localities ; and
♦ Boundaries changed since 1851.
f Object of loan not stated ; supposed to be for railways.
!«■ '
218
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
looked upon this move a3 an abuse of their political power
by the majority. To these considerations, as well as to
the feeling that the debt is due, in a great nieasure, by
the people in one capacity to themselves in anotlier, and not
to individuals or a foreign government— and has more-
over been pretty generally distributed over the province-
may be traced tiiis otherwise disgraceful exhibit. The
dimensions of many of the loans, as compared with the
borrowers, go to show that the latter did not expect and
were not expected to repay ; — nor could many of them
have been sanctioned by the p;)pular approval, had they
been considered 'a.?, hond file debts. The manner in which
the guarantee has been distributed, as shown in the fol-
lowiuij table, has likewise tended to foster this feeliniij.
Oi-eat Westorn. Grand Trunk. Northern.
Total co3t of the road to ) g23,000,10J:.00.$55,690,0:?9.92.. .$3,890,778.68
3 Ist December, 18G0. . j "f^ ' ' •v i i -*■ i i
Total amount received \
from the province in [• . .$3,755,555.18. $15,142,033.33.. .$2,311,606.67
debentures )
Total miles built 345 872 95
Mileage entitled to guar- \ „q^
antee j
.680.
,95
Amount received per mile \
of wlioio road in deben- >• $10,800.00 $17,365.00 $24,333.00
tures )
Amount received per mile i
entitled to guarantee in [• $14,000.00 $22,200.00 $24,333.00
debentures.
Per cent, of cost supplied \
by the province )
.16.32.
27.18.,
,..59.41
The debentures were sold at about twelve and a half
per cent. ]n'e!nium, which would increase these amounts
cue-eighth. The province has abandoned its claim on the
last two roads ; the Great Western has ceased paying
principal or interest, — the former from inability ; the
latt(;r on the ground that its mail service has not been
pcttled.
The Northern was not a part of the main trunk, but ob-
tained provincial aid because it had been put under con-
tract in view of the guarantee, before the repeal of the law
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
219
of 18J-9 ; — a privilege wLich the Prescott and Ottawa
as well as other companies might have obtained, had
they added twenty-five miles or more iu any direction to
the length of their line (so as to make up the seventy-five
miles required to secure them the guarantee), and con-
tracted for the whole.
When the advance to the Grand Trunk was fixed at
£3,000 sterling per mile, the railway commissioners es-
tablished a similar limit for the Northern, or a total of
£275,000 sterling, which was more than that company then
hoped for from the province. On the twenty-first of June,
1854, after two-thirds of the line had been in operation
eight months, the engineer of the company reported that
the remaining third was rapidly approaching completion,
grading and bridging finished, — ties distributed and iron
delivorcd, and one-half of the track laid ; — that i^e expected
to open the whole length in August, when the harbor at
Collingwood would be sufficiently advanced to be used ;
and showed the expenditure, including road, harbor, station
and depot services and equipments, to be £698,810 5*. Od.
sterling. He also rendered an account as follows :
Provincial guarantee, £275,000 stg.^currency at 3} per cent. £334,583 6 8
Received by company, to date 284, 1G6 13 4
Balance currency £50,41G 13 4
In the same month, the railway commissioners reported
that the total amount to complete the works, including
thf rolling stock, was £716,530, of which the sum of
£682,961 5s. Od. had been expended, and recommended the
advance of this balance, subject to the report of one of
their own body, who was an engineer. This report was made
on the twenty-seventh of September following, and it not
only confirmed the advance, but declared that the road —
which was so nearly completed, and which had been esti-
mated by the board of which he was a member, three months
before, at £716,530— would now cost £1,156,592 7s. 7d.
(or $4, ''26,369.52), the moiety of which, or full amount of
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TBAYEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
^narantec by the provisions of the act, will be £578,296
ds. dd., of which the company has received (including the
sum above recommended) £334,583 4s. Sd. leaving to bo
ultimately provided by the province the sum of £243,713,
17s. Id. The company was paid the whole of this extra
amount, £200,000 sterling, in debentures (over $1,000,000),
within four months after this report was made. It is not
often that 9 railway, or any public work, proves to have
cost less than was estimated for it, seven years before, but
the Northex-n is an honorable exception to the rule. The
liscal returns published by the inspecLor of railways, which
are the company's own statements, show that the cost of
this road and its equipments, up to the thirty-first of De-
cember, 1860, instead of $4,626,369.52, was $3,890,778.68,
or $735,i>90.84 less.
The company has received $2,311, 6GC.G7
One-half tlie cost as retumod by them is 1,9-15,380.34
'/
So it would appear they wore overpaid $306,277.33
Ottawa, Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Peterboro', Port
llt)i)e, Niagara, Bnintford, St. Catherine's, Paris, London,
Ikrrie, Guelph, Stratford, Goderich, and the counties and
townships adjoining them, which haveiiot dis[)liiyed much
alacrity in repaying the municipal loan fund, will dnul)tles3
claim that the railways which they have interested them-
selves in should receive some of that consideration which
has been so liberally bestowed on the Northern.
The guarantee law of 1849 was very unguarded; so
much so that contractors, by tendering at double the value,
couUl make the half contributed by the province pay the
whole cash outlay, and could thus afford to take payment
in stock and bonds : this has been the result in the case
of the Northern Railway. It became necessary, therefore,
as we have seen, to restrict it to the main trunk lino, and
to provide not only for the approval of all contracts by the
irovornnient, but that the estimates of work done and to
TKAVEL AND TKAN8P0KTATI0N.
221
be done should be submitted to it — well-meant but inefifec-
tual provisos, as we have also seen. So, also, the manner in
which the municipalities voted away their bonds, forced,
after some three years' experience, a limitation of the
amount for which the province would act as a broker.
Some of the wealthier counties, careful of their credit, de-
clined to pay eight per cent, for money, and thus derived
no benefit from the municipal loan fund (if benefit it can
be considered), while they contribute through the consoli-
dated fund to pay its losses.
During the Grand Trunk era of construction, from 1S53
to 1859, the first Canadian age of iron, and of brass — the
utmost activity was displayed in running into debt. The
great success which attended the ejirly years of the Great
Western assisted every other Canadian road, and was
doubtless the main instrument in preventing the Grand
Trunk from being prematurely abandoned. Whatever
loss of prestige or character the province may suffer from
the almost universal failure of her railways, as investments,
it is clear that in a material sense she has been benefited
immensely by the early luck, of the Great Western, and by
the English infatuation about Grand Trunk; for without
these the means for the construction of many miles now in
use wt>uld not have been raised. The constru(^tiou of the
other lines simultaneously with Grand Trunk was equally
opportune, because there would have been little prospect
of getting them done after the bankruptcy of that road.
RAILWAY MORALITY.
So much recklessness was displayed, in sanctioning by-
laws, and in exchanging what were really provincial for mu-
nicipal debentures, as to give color to the charge that con-
tractors were not the only ones personally interested in
these issues. The years 1852 to 1857 will ever be remem-
bered as those of financial plenty, and the saturnalia of
nearly all classes connected with railways. Before the
invasion of the province at the east by a deputation from
< ii
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
the most experienced railway men of England, bringing
with them all the knowledge and appliances of that con-
servative country, it had been penetrated on the west by
some contractors from the United States, bred in that school
of politics and public works which brought New York
to a dead stand and Pennsylvania to the goal of repudia-
tion. These " practical men" had built State canals with
senators and even governors as silent partners, and were
versed in all the resources peculiar to a democratic com-
nmnity. The convergence of these two systems on the
poor but virgin soil of Canada, brought about an education
of the people and their representatives more rapid than the
most sanguine among them could have hoped for. One
bold operator organized a system which virtually made
him ruler of the province for several years. In person or
by agents he kept "open house," where the choicest brands
of champagne and cigars were free to all the peoples' rep-
resentatives, from the town councillor to the cabinet
minister ; and it was the boast of one of these agents that
when the speaker's bell rang for a division, more M. P. P.s
were to be found in his apartments than in the library or
any other single resort ! By extensive operations ho held
the prosperity of so many places, as well as the success of
60 many schemes and individuals in his grasp, that he ex-
ei'cised a quasi legitimate influence over many who could
not be directl}^ seduced ; or made friends of those he could
not otherwise approach, by liberal purchases of their prop,
erty, and thus, insensibly to them, involved their interests
witli his own. So he ruled boards of directors — suggest-
ing, as the officers who should supervise his work, creatures
of his own — and thus the companies found themselves, on
settlement-day, committed by the acts of their own ser-
vants. Companies about to build a railway, and depend-
ing on the municipal loan fund, were led to believe that,
if he wore the contractor, there would be no difficulty in
obtaining the government sanction of the by-laws to any
extent, and therefore the exchange of bonds ; or, if their
^i
TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION.
223
charter were opposed, the great contractor only could set
it all right. A few anecdotes will illustrate the impar-
tiality of his levies.
An Fnglish contractor was, without competition, about
to pounce quietly upon the contract for the T(5ronto and
Hamilton Hallway, when his American " brother" de-
manded and received a royalty of £10,000 sterling, before
he would allow a corporation to be so imposed upon : he
was, however, subsequently obliged to disgorge this black
mail, when seeking the co-operation of the same contractor
in England for the celebrated but abortive Southern Rail-
way scheme. The English contractors for Grand Trunk
also were compelled, before they could risk the ordeal of
the legislature, to promise the ever-present and never-to-
be-avoided American one-third interest in their contract.
This, considering the kind of payments and their prospec-
tive losses, the latter took the earliest opportunity to com-
promise for the consideration of £12,000 sterling.
The Toronto Northern road was let to a company of
American contractors at a price per mile, payment bemg
made chiefly in the company's stock and bonds, and the
government guarantee debentures. It was necessai-y, in
order to secure any portion of this latter item, that one-
half of the work upon seventy-five miles should lirst be
completed by the contractors. Having exhausted their
means in reaching, as they hoped, this position, the con-
tractors, through the company, called on the government for
the advance ; but, upon an inspection by the government
engineer, the road was found to have been so " scamped,"
under the American engineer (who subsequently openly
became a partner with the contractors), that the commis-
sioner of public works refused to recommend the issue of
the provincial bonds. Here was a fix 1 But the con-
tractors sent for their American brother, who, for a bro-
kerage of $100,000 of the first mortgage bonds of the
company, undertook to obtain the guarantee. He went to
his colleague iu the government ; the commissioner of
I
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TRAVEL AND TUAN8P0RTATI0N.
public works was shunted out of office on a suddenly
raised issue (which immediately thereafter was dropped),
and just one week afterward the guarantee bonds were
forthcoming. In connection with this incident, it is wor-
tliy of remark, that a member of the government shortly
afterward paid away nearly £10,000 of the first mortgage
bondri of the same company in the purchase of real estate.
Tlie Great Western Railway, finding their traflic on the
first opening of the road to exceed their expectations.
Bought, among other legislation, the power to lay a double
track from Hamilton to London, and on applying to the gov-
ernment to promote their bill — instead of meeting with that
encouragement whicli the proposal to expend so much addi-
tional English capital led them to expect — they were grave-
ly assured that the government was powerless to give them
their bill, in consequence of the influence of the enter-
prising Pennsylvanian in the house. The contractor's
price for permitting the bill to pass was — the contract for
the work to be done ; and to this the company, seeing no
escape, consented conditionally ; that is, if the work were
undertaken during the ensuing five years. Fortunately
for them, before a commencement could be made, the
double track was found to be unnecessary. Among other
favors '>btained by the legislation thus bartered for, was
the power to disregard that provision of the railway act
which requires trains to stop before crossing the draw-
bridge over the Desjardin's Canal. In less than two years
thereatter, a train which did not stop plunged through this
very bridge, and among the first recovered of the sixty
victims to that "accident," was the dead body of the great
contractor himself.
Lest it should be considered that there is any thing pe-
culiar to Canada in these transactions, it may be mentioned
that about the same period a Congressman was convicted
at Washington of voting for a " consideration," and was
expelled from the House of Representatives. Tliis man
was declared to bo tlie spokesman of a band, irreverently
^Iffl
TRAVEL AND TRAJ^SPOKTATION.
225
styled " the forty thieves," by whom he was authorized to
negotiate for tlieir votes with the highest bidder. The
canal frauds of New York and Pennsylvania are matters
of history. Venality and corruption in high places, mainly
engendered in the contracts and expenditure for public
works, have done, perhaps, as much as slavery, and that
territorial covetousness which amounted to idolatry in the
Union, to bring down the vengeance of Heaven upon oui^
unhappy neighbors. Nor is tin's, what may be called,
railway morality peculiar to this side of the Atlantic.
The following extracts from Smiles' Life of George Ste-
piienson reveal a similar history in English railways : —
" Folly and knavery were, for a time, completely in the
ascendant. The bharpers of society were let loose, and
jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful.
They threw oat railway schemes as mere lures to catch the
unwary. They fed the mania wuth a constant succession
of new projects. The railway papers became loaded with
their advertisements. The post-office was scarcely able to
distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulars
which they issued. For a time their popularity was im-
mense. They rose like froth into the upper height of
society, and the flunky Fitz Plushc, by virtue of his sup-
posed wealth, sat among peers and was idolized. Then
was the harvest-time for scheming lawyers, parliamentary
agents, engineers, surveyors, and traffic-takers, who were
alike ready to take up any railway scheme, however des-
perate, and to pi'ove any amount of traffic even where
none existed. The traffic in the credulity of their dupes
was, however, the great fact that nuiinly concerned them,
and of the profltable character of which there could be no
doubt. Many of them saw well enough the crash that
was coming, and diligently made use of the madness while
it served their turn.
" The projectors of new lines even came to boast of tlieir
parliamentary strength, and of the number of votes which
they could command in the ' House.'
MiH
226
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
" Amongst the many ill effects of the mania, one of the
worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into
railway transactions. Those who had suddenly gained
large sums of money without labor, and also without
honor, were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest
extravagance ; and a false style of living sliortly arose,
the poisonous influence of which extended through all
classes. Men began to look upon railways as instruments
to job with ; and they soon became as overrun with job-
bers as London charities. Persons, sometimes possessing
information respecting railways, but more frequently pos-
sessing none, got upon boards for the purpose of promoting
their individual objects, often in a very unscrupulous man-
ner; landowners, to promote branch lines through their
property ; speculators in shares, to trade upon the exclusive
information which they obtained ; whilst some directors
were appointed through the influence mainlj' of solicitors,
contractors, or engineers, who used them as tools to serve
their own ends. In this way the unfortunate proprietors
were, in many cases, betrayed, and their property was
Bhamefully stpiaudered, to the further discredit of tlie rail-
way system.
" Among the characters brought prominently into notice
by the mania was tlie railway navvy. The navvy was
now a great man. He had grown rich, was a landowner,
a railway shareholder, sometimes even a member of Par-
liament; but he was a navvy still. The navvy contractor
was greatly given to ' scamping.' lie was up to all sorts
of disreputable tricks of the trade ; but he was greatest of
all, perhaps, in the ' scamping' of ballast. The conse-
quences were sutth as might have been anticipated. l\Ioro
bad and dishonest work was executed on the railways
constructed in any single year subsequent to the mania,
than was f)und on all the Stephenson lines during the
])receding twenty years.
" The navvy's great object was to execute the work so
that it should pass muster and bu well paid for. The con-
TRAVEL AND TBAMSPOlvTATION.
227
tractor in such cases was generally a large capitalist ; a
man looked up to even by the chief engineer himself. But
the worst feature of this system was, that the principal
engineer himself was occasionally interested as a partner,
and shared in the profits of Ihe contract. In passing the
contractor's work he was virtually passing his own ; and
in certifying the monthly pay-bills, he was a party to pay-
ing hiins(jlf. What security was there, under such a system,
for either honest work or honest accounts ? The conse-
quence was, that a great deal of slop-work was thus execu-
ted, the results of which, to some extent, have already
appeared in the falling in of tunnels, and the premature
decay and failure of viaducts and bridges."
Caiia'liiins, indeed, have had cause to blush at the spec-
tacle of men filling the highest offices in their province,
with a seat at the council-board of their sovereign, accept-
ing fees and favors from contractors and ofKcials of a rail-
way company (between whom and them there should
have been a gulf as wide as that which separates the
judges of assize from the suitors before them), and laying
the honor of their country in the dust, often at the feet of
boorish and uneducated men, whose only recommenda-
tions were — ^the material one of ill-gotten wealth, and the
immoral one of unscrupulousness in the use of ii. May
they never again see a member of their government wend-
ing his way to the wharf, after a TnatinSe of champagne,
supported by contractors and their suite, and departing
amid the tipsy cheers of his associates ; — or have to com-
plain that ministers of the crown again have made men
seeking favors from it their most intimate companions,
their hosts and guests, their patrons and their proteges.
The evil effects of the past ascendency of railway influenco
is visible in the disregard paid by many of the companies
to the law of the land. Every company chartered after the
passing of the Railway Act of 30th August, 1851, is re-
(piired to show a printed tariff in every passenger-car, and
16
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22S
TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0KTATI0N.
to submit all by-laws changing this tariff for the approval
of the governor in council, and to publish the by-law and the
order in council approvinf,* the same at least twice in the
Canada Gazette before putting the same into operation ;
also to file in the registiy oilice of each county traversed
by the railway, a map and profile of the portion within
that county ; and one of the /hole railway, in the office
of the commissioner of public works ; and to submit
annually to the legislature dassijied statements of the
passengers and goods transported by them. These pro-
visions should either be enforced or expunged from the
Statute-Book ; for nothing can be more demoralizing in
its example than long-continued disobedience by such
conspicuous law-breakers. An iinnecessary tenderness has
also been displayed toward coTipanies which are exempt
by the date of their charter from the wholesome provisions
of the Railway Act. Almost all the early charters contain
a clause declaring that subsequent enactments by the
legislature in the public interest shall not be considered
a breach of the privileges granted ; and therefore those
railways which, like the Great "Western, do not exhibit
notice-boards at level crossings, and do not remove timber
which may fall across the track, should be required to do so
as much as those chartered a few years later. The number of
level crossings (at every one of which, sooner or later, loss
of life may be counted on) has been reduced on the Great
Western by the fact, that the contractors were paid in
proportion to the work done, and not by the mile, and
because frequent crossings of this description would, in-
crease the danger to the trains^ with the high speed aimed
at in the location of that work. On other roads, where
the contractor's interest was supreme, or where the com-
panies were very poor, these crossings are more numerous,
as being the least expensive.
TRAVEL ANT) TBANSPOETATION. 229
THE GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY.
This important road, Becond to the Grand Trunk only
in its length, was first chartered sixteen years before it
was commenced. The fine agricultural district between
London and Woodstock is nearly equidistant from the
three lakes, Huron, Erie, and Ontario ; and as produce
afloat on the latter is most valuable, being nearer its mar-
ket, the original road of 1834 was one commencing at
London and terminating on Burlington Bay ; though pow-
er was also obtained to extend westward to the navigable
waters of the Thames and to Lake Huron. Before the
work was commenced, however, in 1850, the New York
railways had reached the Niagara frontier, and the Michi-
gan Central road connected Detroit with Chicago. The
Great Western thereupon changed its character from that
of a Canadian local and portage railway only, debouching
on Lake Ontario (which was but a reproduction in iron
of Governor Simcoe's road of the last century), to that also
of an important section of the main line leading from
Boston and Albany to Chicago, the shortest route for
which is through the peninsula of Western Canada. The
eastern terminus was therefore extended to Niagara, where
a magnificent suspension bridge, worthy of the site, united
it to the New York roads ; and the western one was di-
verted from Lake Huron to Detroit, where a short ferry
maintains uninteiTupted communication throughout the
year.
The ec.timate was made in 1847, by an American en-
gineer, and was (exclusive of the Gait branch) only
$4,954,080, which, however, did not include the important
items of right of way and land damages or rolling stock.
The following exhibit shows the expenditure of the com-
pany, and how it is made up, with the excess in the cost
of the main line over the original estimate of 1847 :
1
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230
TBAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Cost of main line and Gait Branch ) .sterling £3,651,524 19 7
(with aidmgs fifty miles) ) " ' '
Cost of Sarnia Branch 467,636 2 2
" Gait and Guelph lino 76,183 7 5
" Hamilton and Toronto line 394,466 10 3
" Steamboats Detroit Ferry 39,332 1 2 10
" " Canada and America 48,820 5 6
Detroit and Milwaukee Loan 250,000 0 0
Total Expenditure in sterling £4,927,953 17 10
Cost of main lino and Gait Branch (not separated) £3,651,524 19 7
Stuart's estimate, 1847 £990,816 0 0
Cost of Gait Branch (estimated) 60,000 0 0
" Rightofway " 188,3710 0
" Rolling stock " 645,774 0 0 1,884,961 0 0
Excess of exp. on main line over origtnal estimate £1,766,563 19 7
This increased cost of track and buildings only, on the
main line amounting to nearly $9,000,000, makes this part
of the work cost nearly three times the original estimate,
and is due to several causes :
1st. It appears that millions of dollars were expended
on these items after the line was opened for traiRc. Until
February, 1852, the expenditure was confined to the Cen-
tral Division, between London and Hamilton (the original
Great Western of 1834), and it was only then the com-
pany felt itself in a position to strike out for the larger
scheme of the througli line. Notwithstanding this tardy
action, it was expected that the whole line would be open-
ed in August, 1853. In November, 1852, there was a
change of engineers, when it was found that the estimates
of the previous June would be exceeded by £621,295 cur-
rency, and the new engineer protested against any attempt
to open, in 1853, a line on which not a mile of track had
been laid before the month of May in that year. Not-
withstanding this opinion, so great was the pressure to
bring about an opening at the earliest moment, that large
sums were offered the contractors if they succeeded in
passing a train by November 1st, 1853. One of the con-
tractors, by laying the track in unfinished cuttings, at ele-
vations varying from five to twelve feet above the perma-
za
TRLVEL AND TRANSrOETATION.
2S1
nent grade, succeeded in passing a train on the 10th of
November, for which performance he received a bonus of
$50,000. The whole line was opened in January, 1854,
but on the 1st of August of that year the engineer showed
work yet to be done to the amount of $1,436,435. Of
course the unfinished cuttings had to be lowered between
the transits of trains; the ballasting was chiefly done un-
der a similar disadvantage, and tlius inucli of the work
cost many times more than it could have been done for in
the ordinary way. In this course the company exceeded
the usual practice of American roads, where, for want of
capital, the object is to expend only so much as is neces-
sary to open a line, in order that the company may cease
paying interest out of capital — have the means of paying
the interest on further loans, and get these loans on better
terms. It does not appear that the pressure for such pre-
mature opening arose from great difficulty in raising the
amount required to cover the deficiency of original esti-
mates, or that the earnings of the road were needed to
meet the interest account. The company, which had then
only received £200,000 sterling from the province, could
have claimed millions of dollars us a six per cent, loan on
account of the guarantee.
2d. The traveller, in riding over a perishable wooden
bridge, nearly a quarter of a mile long and fifty feet high,
which traverses an inlet near the shore of Ontario, sees the
termination of it only a few rods from the line, where a
better and cheaper crossing could have been obtained, and
naturally wonders why the road was not placed there. At
the western end he remarks that the track for miles runs
in the water, with dry land everywhere parallel to the line
and but a few yards from it, and is again nonplussed. The
engineer who located the road had a weakness for straight
lines ; and from the manner in which the work was driven,
it is probable that sufficient time was not given to amend
the location of these long straight lines. Rather than sacri-
fice them, therefore, if a wide gulf or miles of water inter-
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232
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
vened, it was pluiif^ed into ; or if a house stood in the line
it must be removed, and the owner indemnified, coute que
coutc. Of course, the preliminary surveys in 1847 did not
providefo."such freaks of the location one, which was made
some years afterward, and thus increased cost rolled up.
An enormous amount has Leen expended in tlie location
through Hamilton, and the 500 feet ascent westward from
Lake Ontario (which is continuous for eleven miles)> wliere
the road first worked itself, in the course of years, into a
quiet bed through many fathoms of mud and ooze ; then
clings to the face of cliffs, or the rapid slopes formed by
the shedding of their exposed faces ; and, lastly, at the
summit encounters a quicksand, at the bottom of deep
and extensive cuttings. This location, which must have
greatly increased the cost, was rath': : in the interest of the
contractors than of the shareholders, and does not appear
to have been contemplated in the original estimate of 1847.
The contracts, some of which had been entered into four
years before work was commenced, were item ones, and if
at all profitable, this would be in proportion to the amount
of work done. There is nmch reason to bolieve that alter-
ations and additions to the plans, and also extra works,
were ordered without the sanction or knowledge of the
directors, more for the chief contractor's benefit than for
that of the work ; and to such an extent was this carried,
that this road was styled his " milch cow," to be drawn
upon at will.
In England capitalists object to item contracts because,
under these, the final cost is not fixed ; and, theretrre, in
preparing the Grand Trunk for that market, a price per
mile was agi'eed upon ; which, as we have seen, did not
save that company from the necessity of adding many
millions of dollars to its capital. The difference between
an item contract and a per mile one, as usually carried
out on this side of the water, is this. In the former there
is always the temptation, by increasing the quantity and
altering the quality of the work, to make a first-class road :
/H J
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
233
in the latter it is just the reverse ; every thing which is not
in the bond (and sometimes much that is) is omitted. As
to the two systems, it is but Scylla or Chary bdis to a rail-
way company, in the hands of dishonest men ; and, like
forms of government,
" Whate'er is best adaiinistered is best."
The original estimate was, no doubt, most insufficient in
many respects — but there is very little reason to doubt that
the greater part of the excess of £1,766,564 sterling, is
due to the causes we have mentioned.
This company was induced, by the example of Ameri-
can lines terminating on Lake Erie, to embark in the
steambjat business; a disastrous experiment, as it has
proved even on Lake Erie, where its chances were always
best. Before so many through railway lines were estab-
lished between the East and the West, passenger-steamers
could be patronized ; but the division of the business, and
the dread of se-vsickness, no longer make it practicable to
sustain such expensive boats as those floating-palaces,
once the pride of the lakes. A much more serious un-
dertaking into which the company has been led, was the
subsidizing of the Detroit and Milwaukee railway.
Whether this was a legitimate attempt to protect itself
from the encroachments of the Grand Trunk, and to be
able to avoid its proft'ered embraces, or whether (as is too
often the case) the company was forced into it by con
trolling spirits, who had speculated in the securities of the
subsidized road, and used their temporary power to give
value to their major interest at the expense of a minor
one, cannot yet be determined, liailway companies will
always bo exposed to such hazards, so long as their di-
rectors are permitted to hold a greater interest in a:.y
other company.
The Great Western is one of the best equipped and best
managed railways on this continent, and traversing a rich
and populous district, to which it oifers a choice of market,
. a-
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234
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
will always have the best local as well as the best through
business of any Canadian railway.
BUFFALO, BRANTFOBD, AND GODERICH RAILWAY.
While the Great Western was busily engaged in watch-
ing the i)roposed invasion of their territory on the north,
by the Toronto and Guelph road and its extensions, they
were assailed in the rear, and startled by the announce-
ment that a company was formed, and had secured
" vested rights," for a railway between Buifalo and Brant-
ford. The general act, authorizing the formation of road
Companies, had been amended in 1850, so as to extend to
railways — a provision which, it appears, had escaped the
notice of many railway companies. This virtually gave
us the Kew York system of a General Railroad Law, un-
der which any company may make a railway anywhere,
by complying with certain conditions. This democratic
measure is the Jiorror of all orthodox existing companies ;
but while, in New Tork, tlie impossibility of getting cap-
italists to invest in competing lines has been ample pro-
tection, conservative legislation in Canada has entirely
failed to produce the same result. The peo])le of New
York }>assed their General Railroad Law not only as a
measure of justice to all districts, aiul a protection against
mono[)olies, but chiefly in order to extinguish that corrupt
radnig in charters which has obtained in Canada, and
"which induced the legislature to repeal our General Rail-
road Law, immediately after the Buffalo and Brantford
Company had been organized under it — saving those rights,
of course. The mischief having been done in 1851, the
Brantfonl Company, in lS.r2, was allowed to produce ita
line to Goderich, on Lake Huron.
This road originated in a desire, on the part of the popu-
lous city of Buffalo, to render tributary to herself the rich
peninsula of Canada West ; and also to divert the stream
of eastern and western travel and freight away from the
Buspension-bridge voute to her own hotels and stations.
^a*****^
TilAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
235
If the Great "Western had not committed the mistake of
giving Brantford the go-by, it is extremely doubtful
whether Buffalo could have organized a Canadian interest
strong enough to have carried out this measure. This
road, which has an admirable track, and is splendidly
equipped in stations and rolling stock, deserves a better
traffic- Virtually connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie,
it can have, on this route, no through traffic — because this
could only be supplied during the season of navigation,
when there is slack water of unlimited capacity between
its termini, with which it is impossible it can compete. Its
local traffic, alsu, may be limited to that between way sta-
tions, since its principal terminus is in a foreign country,
and liable to exclusion from Canadian traffic by inter-
national trade regulations and currency distinctions. The
great want of this road is a terminus on Lake Ontario, in
which case it would become available for the grain traffic
from Chicago and Milwaukee, or Cleveland and Toledo,
to Oswego, Ogdensburgh, New York, or Montreal. Now
that the Grand Trunk is hors du combat^ and better coun-
sels prevail, the railways of the western peninsula will see
that their great aim should be to build up the shippmg
interest on Lake Ontario. This lake is open by water
communication both to New York and Montreal, and by
the aid of water communication alone can our railways
hope to deliver that back freight at their termini on Lakes
Erie and Huron, which will induce vessels to bring grain
to them instead of taking it on to Buffalo, where return
cargoes always await them.
This railway has a value in its power of mischief, for it
furnishes, in connection with the Grand Trunk, via
Stratford and Sarnia, an opposition to the Great Western ;
and as it has at present no legitimate orbit, it may become
merged in one of these larger bodies. JThe Grand Trunk,
which has so long unsuccessfully wooed the Great Western,
might hope to have in this an engine of coercion ; while
the latter may take it ur as a means of self-defence, or to
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236
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
\\y<
prevent the Trunk from establishing one leg on the Ni-
agara frontier. It is, perhaps, superfluous to say, the
Brantford road could be happy with cither ; but the legis-
lature has fortunately been aroused to the danger of these
amalgamations, and it is to be hoped we have seen the end
of them. . rom Hamilton to Quebec, railway monopoly
is shorn of its power by the water route, but a general
amalgamation on the western peninsula would place the
pople there under a tyranny which could not and would
not be endured.
GRAIN PORTAGE RAILWAYS.
The Niagara peninsula separates the open stretch of in-
land navigation afforded by Lakes Erie, Huron, and Mi-
chigan, from Lake Ontario (which is 330 feet lower), by a
distance of only thirty to forty miles. Although the
Welland canal connects these waters by a fixed scale of
navigation, it is found that the longer voyage on tlie upper
lakes is most profitable when with a size of vessel too large
for this canal ; and that the saving in freight on grain from
Chicago to this peninsula, in the larger vessel, is more
than suflicient to cover the cost of elevating it by steam
power and machinery, transporting it across by rail, and
dischargiMg it into the vessel on Lake Ontario, Time is
saved, so that the wheat reaches the seaboard before tlie
drafts by which it was purcha cd mature ; the grain is im-
proved and prevented from heating by the aeration it re-
ceives in passing through the elevators ; and, most import-
ant of all, every craft afloat on and above Lake Erie is availa-
ble to carry grain destined for Lake Ontario, instead of the
limited number adapted to the locks of the Weiland Canal.
The Weiland Railway, which runs parallel with the Wei-
land Canal, and thus takes advantage of its harbors, luis
demonstrated the iijiportance of this traffic, having trans-
ferred upwards of eleven millions of bushels of grain from
the upper to the lower lake since its opening in June,
1859. Instead of being a competitor with the canal, it has
iS^'^^
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
proved an au.viliary to it, as a lighter to grain vessels too
deeply laden to pass the canal. Over half a million of
bushels were thus " lightered" from one end of the canal
to the other in 1802 ; the total quantity transferred from
Lake Erie to Ontario in this year, was 4,111,040 bushels.
This work, originally projected to connect a steamboat
route between Port Dalhousie and Toronto with Thorold
and the Great "Western Railway, unites the two railways
which Bkirt the opposite shores of the peninsula, and the
numei'ous villages created by the water power of the canal,
and thus has a self-sustaining local traffic as well as its
through business. It has been successfully carried to com-
pletion by the same mind and will which produced the
Welland Canal, and amid the same general predictions of
failure. Following this lead, the Erie and Ontario road,
which is now valueless, is to be extended to Lake Erie,
and become a grain portage railway, besides forming part
of the line between Buffalo and Toronto.
The Buffalo and Lake Huron Company also pro-
pose to acquire the half-completed Hamilton and Port
Dover Railway, between their line and Burlington Bay.
If a connection is made with Lake Erie at Dunville or Port
Maitland, another grain portage railway is estal)lished for
Lake Erie, in addition to their route from Lake Huron.
All three of these roads will avoid the expense of harbor
protection works, as all have the advantage of terminating
in the best natural or artilicial harbors to be found on these
lakes. The difficulty whi.^h all, however, have to contend
against, is the securing of a regular supply of tonnage
working in connection with them, without which they are
helpless, especially while the snpply of routes to the sea-
board exceeds the demand for tlioni. Iron, from its clean-
liness and greater carrying capacity in proportion to beam
and draught, would make the best grain craft, but there
is not capital here to supply tiiem.
These, together with the larger portage roads, offer an
opportunity for a legitimate and extensive increase of
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION,
British commercial tonnage on the lakes, an object of vital
importance in the defence of the province on its weakest
side ; and in this view, instead of mere private speculations,
they become works of national importance.
THE INTER-COLONIAL RAILWAY.
The proposal to unite the British North American Cd-
onies by a railway was the suggestion of Lord Durham,
tlie imperial commissioner sent out in 1838, to inquire
into the Canadian Rebellion.* The initiative was taken
by a proposition from Nova Scotia to have a survey made,
at the joint expense of the three provinces; and this was
undertaken under imperial direction, by Major Bobinson
and Captain Henderson, of the Royal Engineers, in 1846,
and completed in 1848. In 1849, the colonies passed acts,
guaranteeing to acquire the right of way through private
property for this railway, and granting ten miles in width
on either side of the road, wherever it traversed the pub-
lic domain. They also pledged themselves to contribute
£20,000 sterling each, per annum, toward making up
any deficiencies of revenue. It was proposed to raise the
capital on the security of a duty of seven shillings and six-
})ence per load (fifty cubic feet) to be levied on timber,
the produce of the British North American colonies, then
enjoying a protection in Great Britain. In May, 1850,
Sir John Harvey, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia,
made this proposition to Earl Grey, the colonial secretary,
who promptly replied that her majesty's government
were " not prepared to submit to Parliament any measure
for raising the funds necessary for the construction" of
this railway. In July, 1850, a convention Avas held at
Portland, ]\[aine, for the purpose of pushing the American
railway system eastward, through Maine, to Halifax, as
the ultimate port of debarcation of mails and passengers
for Europe. Nova Scotia, desirous of making her portion
of this railway, like her electric telegraph — a public
* In a dispatch which arrived after the High Comr. had left tlio jjrovinee,
Lord Glenelg had suggested an inter-colonial road, and Lord Durham, instead
of this, proposed the railway.
TBAYEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
239
work — once more appealed (in August, 1850) to Earl
Grey, to aid lier with the imperial guarantee or indor-
sation, and offered to assume the wliole burden of its
cost. This application, with reference to a section of only-
provincial and not imperial importance, received no
encouragement ; whereupon the persevering little prov-
ince, determining to make a final effort, dispatched a
delegate, who arrived in England in November, 1850, and
immediately opened his batteries on the colonial ofHce,
with such effect, that on the 10th of March, 1851, Earl
Grey surrendered ; agreeing to guarantee the interest on
the cost of the Nova Scotia Trunk line, but only on con-
dition that the other colonies, Canada and New Bruns-
wick, should place themselves in the same position. Of
course the line was to go to Quebec or Montreal, in-
stead of Portland. It was stipulated that the line should
pass wholly through British territory, and should be ap-
proved of by the imperial government ; but it was not
required that it should necessarily be the one recom-
mended by Major Robinson and Captain Henderson.
In announcing this decision to the delegate, the under
secretary wrote, that " Her Majesty's Government would
by no means object to its forming part of the plan which
may be determined on, that it should include a provision
for establishing a communication between the projected
railway and the railways of the United States." The
delegate read this to mean, that the guarantee would be
extended to two lines through New Brunswick, the one to
Quebec, and the other to Portland ; thus connecting the
maritime colonies both with Canada and the United
States. On March 14th, 1851, dispatches were sent to all
the governments, suggesting a conference at Toronto.
New Brunswick, which had, in mean time, become ex-
cited on the question of the railway to Portland, passed
resolutions, before her legislature adjourned, rejecting any
proposition based on the conditions laid down by Earl
Grey ; evidently not feeling certain that the interpretation
ji^m>*^-
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1^1
240
TKAVEL ANT) TRANSPORTATION.
of the Nova Scotian delegate was to be relied upon.
Delegates, however, from Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick came to Toronto, in June, 1851, according to the
suggestion of Earl Grey, when it was agreed that a line
fi'om Halifax to Quebec should be undertaken on joint-
account. Crown lands on each side of it were to be con-
ceded for the benefit of the road ; the receipts to be com
mon property until payment of cost and interest ; after
which each province should own the portion within her
own territory. The legislature of Canada, then in ses-
sion, at once adopted this agreement. The government
of New Brunswick favorably received it, but in conse-
quence of a change of ministry, no legislative action was
then had. At the very time, however, when Nova Scotia
was rejoicing over the acceptance, by her legislature, of
the imperial offer, a dispatch was on its way out, which
upset all that had been done. On the 27th of November,
Earl Grey called the attention of the lieutenant-governor
of Nova Scotia to an error into which he had fallen, in
his speech when opening the extra session, by assuming
that the imperial government intended to guarantee tlie
amount necessary to construct the Portland line through
New Brunswick, as well as that leading to Quebec. Earl
Grey explained, that the passage which had led Nova
Scotia's delegate astray, only meant that the imperial
government would sanction, but not aid, the Soutliern,
or European and North .Imerican lines, through New
Brunswick — which, he was quite aware, was preferred by
that province to the Northern, or Quebec and Halifax
line.
The great preponderance of population, wealth, and po-
litical influence in New Brunswick, lies upon the Bay of
Fundy and the river St. John, while Major Robinson's line
ran along the Gulf of St. Lawrence. For this reason,
New Bnmswick would not contribute to the Halifax and
Quebec line, unless she in turn was aided to make the line
Bhe preferred ; and she saw clearly that the military con-
TRAVEL KKD TKANSPOKTATION.
241
eiderations, set forth in Mr. Hawp's letter of tlie 10th of
March, 1851, would keep the line either on the eastern
coast or in the wilderness between it and St. John.
Canada, on receiving the interpretation of the original
dispatch, and knowing that New Brunswick would now
abandon the Quebec line, sent off three of her ministers
to Fredericton to console her distressed sister, and at the
same time to feel her pulse. As Earl Grey had not insisted
on Major Robinson's eastern-shore line, although reserving
the right of approval of the route, New Brunswick assented
to " try on" a Halifax and Quebec line which should fol-
low the Southern or European and North American one
as far as the city of St. John, and tiien ascend the valley
of that river to Lake Temiscouata. Be-enforced bv a dele-
gate from the New Brunswick cabinet, the Canadians
journej^ed on to Halifax, where they found a new difficulty.
Nova Scotia had no idea of standing a third of the cost,
if the road should first (/louche on the Atlantic Ocean at
St. John, instead of at its rival, Halifax. Canada, acting
as mediator and umpire, finally proposed that as New
Brunswick would decidedly gain by the adoption of the
southern instead of the northern route, — getting her con-
nection with Quebec and Portland where slie wanted it,
and with 100 miles less of her chosen railway to make at
her own cost, — she should assume five-twelfths and Nova
Scotia one-fourth, Canada taking her old proportion of one
third. At this stage the New Brunswick delegate put the
question to his Canadian fellow-travellers, whether a pro-
posal from English contractors to construct botli roads, on
receiving £90,000 to £100,000 per annum for twenty years
from the colonies, besides a grant of 3,000,000 to 5,000,000
acres of land, would be entertained? The answer was,
" not for a moment ;" whereupon New Brunswick, with
dignified resignation, agreed to the new subdivision on Jan.
31, 1852. On Feb. 5, one of the Canadian delegatea wrote
from Halifax toEarl Grey, detailing the scheme as amended,
and announcing that delegates from the three provinces
? I
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242
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
would wait on him in London. To this, on Feb, 20, Earl
Grey replied, declininj^ to commit himself to the new route
without more specific information, but expressing solicitude
for a successful issue, and approving of the intended dele-
gation to London. The Canadian delegate proceeded to
LoM(lon in advance of his colleagues, where he found Earl
Grey out of office,. and Sir John Packington as his suc-
cessor. Sir John, on May 20, 1S52, notified him that as
all previous negotiations had been based on Major Robin-
son's line, or something near it, the route by the valley of
the St. John was out of the question ; and as the delegates
were authorized to treat only for the latter, he must ter-
minate the question by declining, &c. The provinces
were thus left to carry out their own railways in their own
way; they had, however, gained by the discussion. The
mere proposal on the part of the British government to
indorse their bonds, raised these in a market whei'c they
were not known; and before the adverse decision had been
announced it had been anticipated, and Canada had thrown
herself into the open arms of Messrs. Jackson, Peto, Bras-
sey, and Betts, the great railway contractors.
Viewing tlie question as an imperial as well as an inter-
colonial one, it is evident that the first blunder committed
by the colonies was in agreeing to pay the whole expenses
of a railway survey which was to be made solely under
imperial and military control. They thereby, at the out-
set, assented to the position that the imperial government
had no substantial interest in the question, and at the same
time they failed to ascertain the facilities for other routes,
if such exist, than those recommended. Without impugn-
ing the ability of the royal engineers who conducted the
exploration, there is little doubt that a more satisfactory
survey could have been made by civil engineers, accustomed
to similar surveys in the forests of this continent ; and the
want of some reliable knowledge of the practicability of
other lines besides that recommended by Major Robinson,
has been a stumbling-block in the way of every subsequent
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETATION.
243
movement down to the present hour. It must also be
admitted that the mother country drove a hard harfjain
with her offsjiring. Her own colonial secretarv, Lord
Glenelg, suggested the communication to her own high
commissioner, Lord Durham, not as a military road solely,
but as a political measure. When the colonies took up
the idea, the mother country steadily refused all aid ex-
cept that which, as had been proved to her in the case of
Canada, was but nominal ; while she exacted for this
nominal aid sacrifices from the colonies which were real
and important. She would not build the road, nor aid in
building it, because it would not pay ; and she would not
permit the colonies to build it where they believed it would
pay, at least, its working expenses. She had already
guaranteed a loan for the cost of the canals of Canada,
which were constructed wholly on commercial principles,
and with the route of which she did not interfere, though
military considerations were wholly disregarded in the case
of the Beauharnois Canal. She acknowledged an imperial
interest to which she attached but a nominal value ; she felt
for the colonies, but would not feel in her pockets for them.
Ten years have elapsed, and in the interim sections of
the proposed Halifax and Quebec, and European and North
American Roads have been constructed, the former by
Canada and Nova Scotia, the latter by New Brunswick —
and again the project is revived, by the renewed assent of
the imperial government, to guarantee the funds for the
construction of the diminished distance (reduced from G35
to 370 or 470 miles, according to the route to be selected) ;
and as military considerations are now predominant, it is
understood the selection of the route will be left to the
imperial government.
For the revival of this project we are no doubt indebt-
ed to the exigencies of the Grand Trunk Company, aided
by the re-establishment of the entente cordiale between
the Colonies and the Colonial Office, consequent upon the
visit f H. E. H. the Prince of Wales; by the subsequent
13
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244
TRAVEL AND TRAXSPORTATION".
civil war in tlie United States, and especially by the Trent
aflfair. The Grand Trunk, at its wit's end to raise more
money, and seeing the capitalization of a postal subsidy
yet remote, sought to revive the intercolonial project in
order to transfer to it as much of the unproductive sections
east of Montreal as possible — no doubt at a bargain — and
therefore the influential owners of this road brought about
another Colonial conference. Some years back the Com-
pany, during one of its numerous and successful applica-
tions for relief, generously proffered their 118 miles east
of Quebec as a gift to the Province (in consideration of
the relief granted), to enable her, hereafter, to turn it in
as a part of her contribution towards the future Inter-
colonial Railway. As the Company were then subsidiz-
ing contractors to work this section, by paying them a
handsome bonus in addition to all the receipts, the gift
was not accepted. What it would now be valued at, it is
difficult to imagine ; but it is evident that the first pre
liminary toward the intercolonial project should be to
establish its future relations with the Grand Trunk, and
thus confine the expenditure of the capital to be raised
wholly to the new road to be built, eastward of Riviere du
Loup.
The provinces will, doubtless, build the road, at their
own expense, on whatever route the mother country wishes
it built, if solicited to do so by her — the loans being guar-
anteed, 80 that the money can be raised on terms not
oppressive — because there will then be an implied pledge
on the part of the empire, that if built as a military work,
it will be used as^ such whenever occasion may require.
In other respects its value to Canada will be more
political and commercial than military, because, unless
extended, with the same avoidance of the frontier, far be-
yond Quebec, it will be of little value in the defence of the
province at large. Though it might bring men and mu-
nitions of war without interruption (except from snow) to
Quebec, a fortress which does not require this protection,
Q.
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
245
)f the
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>w) to
these could not reach Montreal or Western Canada hy
rail, unless the Grand Trunk Railway were maintained for
a distance of nearly 400 miles between St. llyacinthe and
Toronto, every portion of which, except, perhaps, a few
miles on the Island of Montreal, would be exposed to a
sudden raid or a superior force.
In order to preserve the granaries of the province in
case of threatened invasion, and supply the comparatively
dense population of Western Canada with arms and mu-
nitions of war, as well as to enable us to contend for the
superiority of the lakes, a railway from Quebec to Lake
Huron, by way of Montreal and Ottawa, is required. If
the latter city were made (as is practicable) a second
Quebec, the water communication could always be kept
open between them, thus reducing the imperative railway
distance, in mean time, to less than half. Such a road
would be a base line of operations for the defence of
Western Canada ; and by means of the present railw^ays
debouching at Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Port Hope,
and Toronto, would serve to communicate with the fron-
tier, while it would be, in its entire length, beyond the
reach of an enemy. If now laid out as a railway, it could
be used as a highway, on which the snow would seldom
be wanting in winter, until time and money could be had
for the better road. As it would pass almost wholly through
the public domain and the best timber districts of Canada,
it would pay indirectly, as a colonization road, creating
wealth by rendering valuable timber which is now beyond
reach, and is being annually diminished by fire ; and giving
increased value to the lands on both sides of it. In timber
and lumber it would have a profitable local traffic in both
directions, to the markets of Chicago and the Hudson river ;
and in spring and autumn, if extended to Montreal, a
through grain trafiic would arise, ir which, the St. Clair
flats being avoided, the largest class of vessels which can
enter Chicago would be employed, and grain could be
delivered at tide-water from Lake Huron, with one hundred
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TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION.
miles less of railway carriage than by any other mixed
route having but one transshipment.
Large sums of money have been annually expended
without much system, and with comparatively partial re-
sults, on what are called colonization roads, which it would
be wiser to concentrate on such a truly national object as
the above, — one which would promote immigration, develop
the resources, and provide for the defence of the country
That such a road would yield the country a return com-
mensurate with its cost there can be no doubt, and that it
wofild be at least self-sustaining there is a certainty. The
only thing therefore which should prevent its execution, is
the burden of its cost until it has produced its fruit. To this
it may be said, that more money would be spent and lost for
the want of it, in one year of war, than would construct it ;
and that there is no way in which the colony could so power-
fully contribute to her own defence, and to the integrity of
the empire, without ultimate loss, and while pursuing the
legitimate mission of peace. As a necessary extension
and corollary to the intercolonial railway, the mother
country might fairly be requested to promote such a work
by similar assistance ; and the province could have in her
unsold provincial domain, thus rendered valuable, a relia-
ble basis for a sinking fund to meet the interest, and to
provide for the extinction of the principal, of the loan.
The importance of opening up this domain has been recog-
nized in the charter of a company for the construction of
a railway from Quebec to Lake Huron, and the endow-
ment of the same by a grant of 4,000,000 acres of the
public lands. The demonstration of the failure of Canadian
railways as investirtents, and tlie extent to which the
provincial revenue is burdened by guarantees, left no
other means of raising or attempting to raise the capital
required, but that of a corporation based upon land
grants ; and if, as appears to be the case, large endow-
ments of land will not secure the construction of the road,
the project must either be abandoned or be taken up as a
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TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
247
public work. However unpropitious the time may 1 t
considered for such a suggestion, it may bo asserted that
no public »vork already executed, or proposed, can surpass
in importance tnat of a railway from Quebec to Lake Hu-
ron, as a national road. With such a base, and with our
i)ack to the unopened north, our flank could not be turned,
nor our communication with the sea be cut off. Without
it, the attempt to hold Western Canada against an invading
force five times our superiors in nuinbers, and command-
ing, as they then could, the lakes, would be almost hope-
less. If 4,000,000 acres is not sufficient appropriation
for such a work, we can increase the quantity. The prin-
ciple that the public lands are of little value until salable
is self-evident ; and it is equally true, as admitted by our
free grant system, that a settler as a consumer, and subject
of taxation, is more remunerative to the province than the
unoccupied acres he would require. The interest question
and municipal taxation will force the earliest practicable
settlement of the lands, no matter into what hands they
may fall. The United States Congress has granted no
less than 25,000,000 acres to railways, besides 10,000,000
acres for other public improvements.
If the Intercolonial Railway be entered upon as a
political and social measure only, it may terminate at
Quebe'j; but if designed as a military one, it should be
pushed to its legitimate conclusion, and that will not be
found short of Lake Huron.
"
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RAILWAY POLICY.
The great want of the Canadian railways is a paying
traffic. The Grand Trutdv, in tapping the Western reser-
voirs, may feed itself imder an almost constant head, and
maintain an almost continuous descending stream, though
this may not often be a paying one ; but as the Western
States do not import through Canada, there is no return
traffic. The procession of empties, from the Atlantic
to the St. Clair, is " a drawback" which will always bo
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248
TRAVEL AND TEAN8PORTATI0N.
difficult to get round, and must have suggested melan-
choly trai'ip. of reflection in the mind of each sucessive
manager. Ivj price ohtainable in competition with the
water, or with the shorter lines and better gradients and
lighter frosts and snows of the American routes, can com-
pete with the latter, while these monopolize the carriage
of the up freight, the merchandise and manufactures, on
which the most profitable rates are collected. The through
downward freight to the Atlantic, consisting chiefly of the
cheap cereals, the flour and the lumber of the north,
does not average more than about one-tenth of the value
per pound of the cotton, tobacco, and sugar, the agricul-
tural products of the south ; and it is questionable whether
on the whole of a year's business it has ever paid the rail-
ways more than the cost of carrying it. The downward
or export tonnage, is usually three to one. as compared
with the up or import freight ; and to that extent the local
business also involves a return of empties which has here-
tofore, to a considerable extent, been avoided on the
American lines by the westward excess of the immigrant
travel. The dream of a great railway traffic through Canada,
between the Atlantic and the west, except on the portage
linos terminating on Lake Ontario and the Niagara fron-
tier, must therefore be abandoned ; and we must turn our
attention to tiie development of tJic local traffic of the
country, and bring down our establishments from those of
a foreign war of aggression on the more favored routes,
with all its consequent extravagances and losses, to that
of a peace and home establishment.
With regard to the passenger traffic, there yet remains
the experiment of cheaper rai^es of fare, to test whether
any increase of travel will produce a greater siggregato
from this source, at the same cost to the companies. The
rates charged are, when and where practicable, the maxi-
mum which the law allows, and are about fifty per cent,
higher than those on leading United States' lines. No
doubt thoy are at this excess much less profitable, in con-
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TRAVEL AND TEANSPORTATICV.
249
sequence of tlie paucity of travel ; but it is equally certain
that the low • rates of the American routes have developed
a much greater tendency to travel there than htTC. The
manufactures of New England are the main source of the
profitable local traffic of her railways, and this r^^onrce
our roads do not possess. Besides the immigration kind
great business travel between the east and the west, one
of their profitable items is in the large amount of female
travel between New England and her western colonies.
The young adventurer l^turns from the prairies to take
back a wife frotu his native hills ; perhaps a sister accom-
panies them " on speculation." In the course of evcntt
the wife returns to her mother, or the mother goes to her
daughter, and a third passenger appears on the stage.
On the one hand it is argued by the companies, that
fifty passengers at ten dollars each, are more profitable
than sixty at eight dollars ; but if the number increase to
seventy-five the reduction would pay. The increase would
be the work of a little time, and might then possibly be
attributed to the progress of the country, and not to the
policy of lower fares. Such a bold experiment- probably
requires more faith and patience tiian our railways, in
their present distressed state, can be expected to exercise.
On the other hand it may be said that the trains must and
do go, whether full or not ; that even if no more money
were received, they cost the company scarcely any more
when full than empty ; and that increased facilities beget
both trade and travel, to the ultimate gain of the railway.
Tlie position assumed by the companies is, that there exists
a certain amount of travel whicii must go, and that any
reduction to tliis would be so much loss. Perhaps a com-
promise might be arrived at, and the experiment tried by
a wise and gallant discrimination in favor of women and
children. At present, a respectable woman in Montreal
cannot pass her Christmas with relatives or friends in
Toronto short of an outlay of twenty dollars. The fatigue
of a sixteen hours' journey, and the risk of a broken rail
} ti li
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250
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
(and neck), are such as to require decided temptations to
travel ; and it would be sound policy in railway companies
to encourage a spirit of locomotion in that sex wliicli is
supposed to be attracted by every reduction in price, and
which has both the leisure to travel, and the power of
obtaining the ways and means from those who must re-
main at iiome. In their freight traffic the companies dis-
criminate in favor of the long haul, and it is only in their
passenger rates that the jpro rata system is maintained.
The principle that a half fare is better than none, is also
admitted, whe?e competition exists, in their through
rates, between Chicago and Boston. It might be found
equally wise to establish special through rates between
distant cities in Canada, instead of treating them wholly
as local points, and thus create a travel which does not
now exist.
As to freight traffic, the rates must vary with the exist-
ence or otherwise of watc competition, which is the only
protection to the prc^^iCer against excessive charges, there
being no limitation by law to the freight tarift' except the
neglected sanction of the government. The greatest de-
vciopmont of a legitimate and profitable freight traffic will
be that which will arise from an abandonment of the at-
teni})t to compete with the water route, and the adoption
of this as an auxiliary, particularly in the carriage of grain
in bulk ; which, from its mobility, can be shipped and trans-
shipped by machinery, and with benefit instead of de-
terioration.
EXPRESS COMPANIES.
The public does not derive the full benefit fron the rail-
ways which these great improvements on all previous means
of communication are capable of giving, and the railways
do not earn all they are capable of earning, in consequence
of the monopoly accorded to a peculiarly American institu-
tion— the Express Company ; a sort of imperium in imperiOf
enjoying the benefit of the franchise of the corporation,
< 'I
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
251
without assuming its liabilities toward the public. Tlie
necessity for the rapid conveyance of very valuable small
or perishable articles, a business of great importance and
profit, which is conducted by the parcels delivery depart-
ment of the English railways, was soon perceived ; but in
America, instead of this being done by the railways, inde-
pendent corapanies were formed in which railway directors,
superintendents, &c., became interested, contracting with
themselves for the transport of the most paying freight,
and flourishing as an Express Company while languishing
as a Railway. The importance of the institution was greatly
enhanced by the necessity which existed for some wealthy
and responsible association, to whom could be committed
the transport of specie, bills, and negotiable security, which
either could not be intrusted to, or could not be transported
by, the United States post-oflSce. The railway companies
confined themselves to the transport of passengers, and
of freight by freight trains only ; and in ?ome cases they
have entered into covenants with the express companies,
that no passenger should be allowed to carry any thing
but personal luggage with him, even by paying the extra
baggage rate for the same. Under this system passengers
on the Grand Trunk Railway have unexpectedly had small
articles taken forcible possession of and handed over to the
express : the owner going home without them, and receiving
them some tiine next day, with charges several times greater
than the extra baggage rate, and in some cases more than
the value of the article. Fruit, which the passenger hoped
to enjoy with his family while it was fresh, was depreciated
one-half and charged more than its worth.
The impolicy of this system, besides the ill-feeling it
engenders, is, that it discourages the passenger traffic, the
most profitable of all. A country resident goes into the
city expressly to make pi'rchases, and naturally wishes, if
their bulk permits, to take them with him in order to save
time and cartage. The company's regulations would allow
eighty or one hundred pounds of shirts, &c., in a trunk, but
I
H-
-7-i^
252
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
,'« ' 1 ' 1
^v
ri
not one-half that weight or bulk of any thing else ; and
when the purchaser once experiences the annoyance and
the extortion, he will not a second time submit himself to
it. But there is a still greater evil in the system. The
company runs with the passenger train one car, about
equally divided among the post-office, baggage, and ex-
press. The latter, with a limited space, and dealing only
in the more valuable articles, keeps up its charges so as to
exclude a large amount of articles requiring either quick
transport or prompt delivery, and yet not possessing suffi-
cient '/alue to affi^rd express rates; while, where it has the
power by the bond, it plays the part of the dog in the
manger, and will not let the railway company carry these
in the half- empty compartment accoi'ded to baggage.
The express charges are arbitrary, irregular, and often pro-
hibitory. The public have no remedy, because the rail-
way company says : " "We are not compelled to carry by
l)assenger trains any thing but passengers and their lug-
gage. If you do not like express charges you must wait
fur the freight trains." These are irregular, and no facili-
ties are offered for, or proper care taken of, light articles,
so that the freight trains are not available for these, even
if time be unimportant. But perishable articles, such as
fruit, Ush, vegetables, require quick transport, and space
and rates which the express cannot afford or will not ac-
cept ; and the railway is thus confined to the limited
amount of these, with many other articles of traffic, which
the ricii only can affoi'd to consume.
It is a question whether the railway and post-office de-
partments sliould not do the whole of tlie business now
done by the express. It is certain that the revenue of both
the former are materially reduced by the existence of the
latter. But if the express be an institution as indispensable
as either of the others, then it should be treated as such,
and be put under similar regulations and restricitions.
Above all, some provision should be made for a parcel and
fast freight traffic, especially for articles which will not go
h,'i
.'*!!f
swr-*^
IKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
253
either by express or upon freight trains, and at rates si. fti-
eient to pay one profit direct to the railway, instead of two
to tiie express. As to the vahie of the express tratHc to the
railway, it appears that tlie whole amount received by the
Grand Trunk Company from express companies in ISGO,
over 970 miles of road, was |27,600, or less than twenty-
nine dollars per mile per annum. Tnis company com-
plains that seventy dollars per mile is wholly insufficient
remuneration for the carriage of the mails, which do not
equal the express goods in weight, travel at the same speed,
occupy the same car, and have, like the express, only one
conductor ; they must, therefore, be greater losers propor-
tionally by the rates they have fixed for themselves, thau
by those which the post-office has fixed for them. Assum-
ing that the way mail on accommodation trains together
with extra mails per ocean steamers, make the total mail
service double in value that of the express, it would seem
that the company, by their own showing, either get too
much for the mails or too little for the express.
CANADIAN GAUGE.
The gauge of the Canadian railways is five feet six
inches, although this is not the exclusive one in use. The
St. Lawrence and Champlain ; Stanstead, Sheilbrd, and
Charably ; the Prescott and Ottawa ; and the St. Lawrence
and Industry roads, in all 147 miles, are of the American
gauge of four feet eight and one-half inches.
Some energetic gentlemen in the city of Portland, am-
bitious of obtaining something of that railway aid which
had contributed so much to the success of Boston, con-
ceived the bold idea of tapping the St. Lawrence at Mon-
treal by a railway over the route of the White Mountains,
through the vast forests of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver-
mont, and Canada. The distance is nearly three hundred
miles, with an intervening summit of about one-third of a
mile in height above the termini, the line having besides
the frequent and severe curves and gradients usual to such
1 I
■■' I
jm^-i^^
.1.
, «
I 'M
¥ ..
I li
I
254
TRA.VEL AlND transportation.
a route. Having enlisted Montreal in the project, they
took the precaution to bind the Canadians, under seals and
penalties, to adopt the peculiar and exceptional gauge of
live feet six inches ; and an elaborate and sententious report
was prepared, which proved to the unsophisticated Cana-
dians, that by the simple adoption of this great iniprove-
ment in gauge, Boston and New York would be distanced.
Wlien the Grand Trunk bill was passed, Lower Canada
being in the ascendant, the Portland gauge was forced
upon the province, the Lower Canadians being iinanimous
in its favor, because they had been led to believe that it
would divert western trade from the New York route and
send it down to Montreal.
The Great Western Kailway, which was not restricted
to a particular gauge by its charter, had decided on
the American one, but was compelled to change it by
threats from the government, both to withhold the guar-
antee, and also to charter a continuation of the Grand
Trunk, on the Canadian gauge, from Toronto to Sarnla,
To the latter intimation the company yielded, vainly sup-
posing that they thereby acquired a right of protection from
a competing line, especially as they formed a portion of
the Trunk railway. But as soon as Grand Trunk became
supreme in the provincial cabinet, the unfortunate Great
Western had the disagreeable alternative of amalgamation
or competition presented to them, and of the two evils
they naturally chose the least. The Grand Trunk went to
Sariiia, the guarantee following it, to the great beneiit of
the intervening counties, and of the contractors; and as it
went to Sarnla, so it must also go to Riviore du Loup, in
order that there might not be an undue preponderance of
mileage in Upper Canada ; and this is where the contractors
and the counties got the better of the shareholders. The
latter have, however, no cause of complaint against the
province on this score, for, by their prospectus, they un-
dertook to go to Sarnia, and not only to Rivi6re du Loup,
but thirty-five miles beyond, besides constructing the
TEAVEL AND TBANSPOBTATION.
255
Grand Junction, a work which has not been, and is not
likely to be, commenced.
It has long since been demonstrated, that what is called
the narrow or Stephenson gauge, of four feet eight and
one-half inches, is wide enough for all practical purposes;
and that any increased width is an unnecessary expense
in first cost, and an increase of dead weiffht, and of re-
sistance at curves in working.
In case of invasion, however, there would bo this ad-
vantage in the Canadian gauge, that on all approaclieis —
excepting tliat from Portland — the enemy must relay to
his own gauge nearly the whole of our railways, before
his own rolling stock could be used — unless indeed we
should so blunder as to let ours fall into his hands.
HORSE RAILWAYS.
The first street railway company in Canada was or-
ganized the 29th of May, 1861, for the city of Toronto ;
and the materials being prepared, the Yonge street line
was commenced on the 26th of August, and opened to
the public on the 11th of September in the same year.
The Queen street line was also commenced o'l tlic 16th
of October, and opened the 2d of December. This com-
pany claim six miles of single track, eleven cars, and
seventy horses ; — which, with stables, car-houses, &c., are
put down at a cost of $175,000 in stock and bonds. The
cash outlay has probably been something under half of
these figures.
The Montreal street railway was likewise commenced
in September, 1861, and opened in the following Novem-
ber. The total length of track is six miles and a quarter ;
the cost of which, including eight cars, brick stable, forty
stalls, and car-house, was $89,263.13 ; of which $12,500
was paid the contractor in stock. The company have be-
sides, four one-horse cars convertible into close sleighs,
three covered sleighs, fi.ve open sleighs, and sixty-three
iiuijua*'**
ii'\
, ^i
y 'i>
If I nil;'*"'"
25G
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
horses, with Imrness and other equipments, costing, together
er, $10,16J:.52:— making the total cost almost $100,000.
The street railway is an institution for the benefit of
those who ride at the expense of those who drive; and is
a Hagrant violation of the rights of the minority, if not of
the majority. The rights of a single owner are considered
sufficient to p t^vent the closing or alienation of a high-
way ; gas and water companies are only permitted tempo-
rarily to obstruct a street ; but the horse railway is a
permanent obstruction — practically dividing a wide street
into two narrow ones, and a narrow one into two lanes.
These railways are a great relief to commercial cities,
where the busii'^iss centre is ever extending, and pushing
the population into the suburbs ; — and they therefore
much increase the value of suburban property ; — but it is
questionable whether they will be found profitable as in-
vestments in Cimada. It will be oidy occasionally that
they can be worked in winter — and then only in Western
Canada, so that during this period their permanent way
is of no value ; and the traffic by sleighs, always open to
competition, will be ba.i3ly sufficient to cover expenses
Where, however, they do not pay as investments they are
often warranted, provided the traffic is sufficient to cover
the working expenses, if laid down in connection with,
and by the owners of real estate, in the suburbs. Still
there should be some limit to the extent to which the
streets of a town may be cut up for such partial and selfish
purposes ; as there is a tendency to obstruct streets with
them where there is no plea of necessity, but chiefly to se-
cure the franchise for the future. If proper discrimination
were used, a few leading arteries could be laid down, in
streets which are not thoroughfares, without much incon-
venience to the public, and with nearly equal advantage to
those who use them — a precaution which has not been
taken either in Toronto or Montreal
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION,
VICTORIA BRIDGE.
257
Tliis structure, the design of which originated with a
Canadian engineer, Mr. Thomas Keefer, is beyond dis-
pute, the most costly and magnificent bridge ever erected.*
The following extract is from a report of proceedings in
the Parliament of Canada :
" Hon. Mr. Allan said that before the orders of the day
were called, there was a subje^c to which he desired to
call the attention of the House, and which lie desired tho
Government to hear. It was true that one of Enirland's
greatest engineers had given the sanction of his name to
the Victoria Bridge. But it was also true that that great
work was indebted in the first place for its conception to
Canadian skill. To a Canadian engineer was due the first
enunciation of the scheme of laying down the present
bridge in the place where it now stands. In 1847, Hon.
Mr. \ oung, of Montreal, and the finance minister, ob-
tained a survey of the St. Lawrence, in order to see if it
were possible to erect the bridge. The survey was carried
on by an engineer of experience, but this gentleman re-
ported that the scheme of bridging at Point St. Charles
was impracticable. At the same time he reported the
feasibility of building a bridge over Nun's Island. In
1851, Hon. Mr. Young obtained another survey of the St.
Lawrence, for the same purpose, conducted by Mr. Thos.
C. Keefer, an engineer whose talents were well known in
the province. The result of this survey was given in a
report published immediately afterwards. In this report
Mr. Keefer demonstrated the practicability of erecting the
bridge in the place where it now stands. The plans on
which the bridge should be constructed were also laid
down. It was recommended that it should be a solid rail-
road bridge, that it sliould be erected high over naviga-
* Mr. Keefer having from a natural delicacy declined to write an account
of a work with which his namo is so intimately associated, the following ex
tracts must suffice. — Ed.
I '
9
258
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
Hi
•iii
iil
^il ;'!iil|
t ^^:
r-m
~^^
tion, instead of having drawbridges in it. A certain dis-
tance was to intervene between the piers. It was to be
for railroad traffic alone ; and lastly, and what was of
greatest itnj>ortance, solid approaches should be con-
structed to diminish the waterway, instead of enlarging it
as might have been proposed, and to guard against the
crush of ic(}. It was worthy of remark, tliat the present
bridge was constructed precisely as this report recom-
mended. (Hear.) In consequence of the changes which
afterwards t jok place in the management of the Grand
Trunk Railway, the undertaking was transferred to English
hands, and the work in question was constructed by other
persons. The bridge, however, was built in accordance
with Mr. Keefer's report. (Hear.) All the leading prin-
ciples set forth in his report were adopted by the English
engineers. This being the case, he (Mr. Allan) claimed
that Mr. Keefer should not be overlooked ; that the English
engineer should not receive the whole of that credit, an
equal portiaii of which was due to the Canadian. He
claimed fur Mr. Keefer that his name should be eno;raved
on the Victoria Bridge beside the names of Stephenson,
Ross, and the other engineers connected with that work,
whose names were already cut upon it. He made this
proposition with the greater confidence, because on many
occasions the celebrated Stephenson had acknowledged
Mr. Keefer's claims with reojard to the oriii-inatino- of the
work. (Hear.) The Grand Trunk Railway Company
had also acknowledged Mr. Keefer's claims, for they had
been compelled to pay him a certain sum for his report,
and also for his services ; and not oidy had justice been
done to Mr. Keefer by Stephenson and the Grand Trunk
Companj^ hut even in the American railroad journals
credit was given to him — not once but on several occasions."
The following description of the Bridge is extracted
from " ^'1 Glajioe at Victoina Bridge^ and the Men %oho
luilt it^'' by Mr. Charles Legge, C. E., Montreal.
"The superstructure, as designed by Mr. Stephenson, con-
j-;*4 >j
^1
:im\i ■'■n#l
■H
^,jjyiit««-
'r^^aol^■
:ie aa;
'■ 1.10 V-'lUU'
v''
y
V!1 I
^«*'''.'^1V|^fff|^^
TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0BTATI0N.
259
sists of twenty-five tubes, or rather, as one continuous tube
extends over two spans, of twelve double tubes, and the
large central one over the channel. They are of the uiii-
fonn width of sixteen feet throughout, for the accommo-
dation of a single line of railway, but differing in height
as they approach the centre. Thus, the depth of tlie tubes
over the first two spans is eighteen feet six, the next two
nineteen feet, and so on, every coupled pair gaining an
additional six inches, to the centre one, which is estab-
lished at twenty- two feet in depth, as the proper propor-
tion obtaining for a beam 330 feet long. These side-spans
being all the same length, the increase in height dues not
arise from any requirement of additional strength, but
simply to prevent the appearance of too great a break
being visible in the top line of the tubes, and, by graduat-
ing the difference in height between the ends and centre,
to give greater facilities for the roof required in the pro-
tection of the tubes from moisture and consequent oxida-
tion, and presenting at the same timS a straight and con-
tinuous outline on the top.
" The tubes, being detached, are not designed npon the
principle of continuous beams, for practical reasons, in-
cluding the circumstance of the steep gradient on each
side of the central span, and the great disturbance which
would be caused by the accumulated expansion and con-
traction of such a continuous system of iron work, in a
climate where the extremes of temperature are so widely
apart. The arrangement introduced of coupling but two
together, with an intermediate space of eight inches be-
tween them and the neighboring tubes, divides this move-
ment and retains it within certain specified limits.
" A double tube, covering two openings, is securely bolted
to the masonry of the pier in the centre, on which it has a
solid bearing of sixteen feet by nineteen feet, and provided
with a free bearing on each of the two contiguous piers of
seven and a half ieet, resting at each end on fourteen ex
pansion rollers six inches in diameter and three feet in
Ai^.U*-"
1:
^ik'
260
TRAVEL AND TEANSPORTATION.
length, seven on each side of the tube, retained in place
by a wrought-iron frame, allowing the rollers to traverse
on a planed cast-iron bed-plate seven and a half feet long,
three and a half feet wide, and three inches thick, bolted
to the masonry. A similar plate covers the rollers, and is
secured to the bottom of the tube. The tube is thus free
to expand or contract each way from the bearing-pier m
the centre.
" Creosoted tamarack timber, covered with felt, is intro-
duced between the iron and the stone, in every case, to
give the junction of these hard materials a certain amount,
of elasticity.
" The tube proper is composed entirely of wrought-iron,
in the form of boiler-plate, ranging from four-sixteenths to
twelve-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, with the joints
and angles stiffened and strengthened by the addition of
Tee and Angle irons. The secret of success in this mode of
construction, lies in arranging those different thicknesses
where the strains or weights call for additional strength
or otherwise.
" The following table will show the general distribution
of material in the different parts of the tube, as arranged
by Mr. Stephenson, starting in all cases from the centre of
the spans : —
ce
•se
;ed
L is
ree
in
:ro-
, to
an'''-
•on,
sto
ints
I of
leof
jsses
agtli
ilion
nged
re of
travel and transportation.
Top Plates.
261
Length of
Division.
Sectional Area.
Total Area.
From
Centre.
Plates.
Strips, Tee
and Angle
Irons.
Thickness of ]
Plate.
1
11.00
125
92Ja
217tV
1"
2
11.00
125
86tV
211iV
i"
8
4
11.00
11.00
lUa
107tV
86^
84U
2001^
191U
tV
i
6
6
7
11.00
11.00
11.00
87^
75
56U
84U
77A
l72tV
152VV
134
8
11.00
63|
55J.
1081
tV
9
11.00
60
65^
1061
it
10
11.00
60
48
98
«
11
11.00
1
((
((
it
Bearing.
8.00
129.00
Bottom Plates.
Length of
Sectional Area.
From
Strips, Toe
Thickness of
Centre.
Division.
Plates.
and Angle
Irons.
Total Area.
Plate.
1
19,6
137.60
63.75
201.25
f— l^^l
2
14.0
137.50
57.76
196.25
»4 tt
•
3
14.0
125.00
67.75
182.75
(( a
rs
4
14.0
112.50
54.25
166.75
tV-tV
o
6
14.0
87.60
67.60
145
tV— tV >
6
14.0
85.00
33.00
118
tV
7
14.0
50.00
42.00
92
tV
8
17.6
60.00
42.00
92
A
B-jaring.
8
50.00
42.00
92
tV
129.0
2(32
TRAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION.
A
l^H
SIDE PLATES.
Beginning at the centre, and strengthei^ed by Tee bars
inside and out, placed at distances of 3', 6", —
The flrst space of 35 feet from the centre is formed of J inch plate.
Tilt) second space of 45^ feet " " " JL " "
The third " 35 " " " " 0. " "
0
The remaining space " " " _»_ " "
The following analjr^is is made of the arrangement
proposed for distribution :
Top of tube 76 Tons.
Bottom of do 82 " 158
Sides 84
Total 242 Tons.
Keelsons, 10 inches in depth, are placed transversely at
distances of 7 feet, and secured to the side Tee bars by
gussets, for the support of the longitudinal timbers carry-
ing the rail.
The top of the tube is also supported by keelsons at the
same distances apart, and the whole tube rendered rigid,
by stiffening gussets and double covers over every joint.
The wrought iron in a single tube 258 feet in length,
including its bearings over the piers, weighs about a ton
to the running foot, or 258 tons in all.
Tlie central tube, in consequence of its increased length,
is somewhat different in its arrangement ; the bottom and
top being proportionally stronger, — the first with an addi-
tional thickness of plates, and the last, with longitudinal
keelsons 10'' high, taking the place of the ordinary longi-
tudinal Tee bars, as existing on the side tubes ; the side
plates are 2^ feet, instead of 3} feet wide, with a propor-
tionately larger number of side Tee bars. The whole tube
is disconnected from the others, being bolted to pier No.
12, and resting on rollers on No. 13 pier.
Windows are introduced into the sides of the tubes
near the line of neutral axis, and serve to liglit up the in-
Bide. Iron brackets are placed on the piers where not
ft -m
and
addi-
dinal
longi-
side
ropor-
tube
rNo.
TBAVEL AND TRAIdSPORTATION. 263
occupied by the tubes, and slope back to the top of the
tubes, but are entirely disconnected from it. They serve to
give a finislied appearance, and likewise prevent the snow
and rain blowing in through the openings left for expan-
sion and contraction.
It was originally intended to cover the top of the tubes
with a curved corrugated iron roof, to protect them from
the weather. This design was subsequently abandoned
and the present sloping angular one substituted, composed
of grooved and tongued boards, covered with the best
quality of tin. This tin is not put on in the usual manner,
but, by an ingenious arrangement, each sheet is allowed
to expand and contract at pleasure, without the danger
of destroying the fastenings wliich attach it to the timber
underneath, as in the ordinary method made use of, and
thus insures its continual efficiency.
A foot-walk 26 inches in width extends along the top
of the roof, the whole length of the tubes, for the conve-
nience of the employes connected with the work ; a track
is also provided for the painting-travellers.
The contract price may be put down under the heads of,
Fi7-st. — The approaches and abiitmonts, which topjether extend
to ;!,000 feet in length, amount in the estimate to $1,000,000
Second. — The masonry forming the piers, which occupy the inter-
vening space of 7,000 feet between the abutments, including
all dams and appliances for their erection 4,000,000
TJurd. — The wrought-iron tubular superstructure, 7,000 feet in
length, which amounts to 2,000,000
(About $285.70 per lineal foot), making a total of $7,000,000
The following interesting details are annexed by Mr.
Lcgge :
First stone. No. 1 Pier, laid 20th July, 1854.
First passenger train passed 17th December, 1859.
Total length of Bridge, 9,184 feet lineal.
Number of spans, 25; 24 of 242 feet; one of 330 feet.
Height from surface of water to under side of centre tube, 60 feet
Height from bed of river to top of centre tube, 108 feet.
Greatest depth of water, 22 feet
General rapidity of current, 7 mile8 an hour
Cubic feet of masonry, 3,000,000.
■*1vl
i' • I' ' wT^
», !;,
"IM
. 1
11 'ora
I!
264 TRAVEL AND TBANSPOETATION.
Cubic feet of timber, in temporary work, 2,250,000.
Cubic yards of clay used in puddling dama, 146,000.
Tons of iron in tubes, say, 8,250.
Number of rivets, 2,500,000.
Acres of painting on tubes, one coat, 30; or for the four coats, 120 acroo.
Length of abutments, 242 feet each.
" of north approach, 1,344 feet.
" of south approach, 1,033.
Force employed in construction during summer of 1858, the working season
extending from the middle of May to the middle of November :
Steamboats, G; horse power, 450 ) ,„ „„„ .
Barges, 72 \ ^^'""" ^°°^-
Manned by 500 sailora
In stone quarries 450 men.
On works, artisans, &c 2,090 men.
Total 3,040 men.
Hones, 142. LocwmotiTea, 4.
^3 t,
TKATEL AND TRANSPORTATION.
265
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266
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
The whole of the telegrapliic system of Canada (except
the private lines belonging to railway companies) is in the
hands of one company.
The Montreal Telegraph Company was organized in
1847, and first opened between Quebec and Toronto. The
following figures show the progress of this company :
In 1S4T. In 1861.
The capital stock £15,000 £100,000
Length of line 540 miles. 3,422 miles.
Number of stations 9 150
Persons employed 35 400
Number of messages transmitted 33,000 300,000
Miles.
The main lino extends from Woodstock in New Brunswick
to Detroit in Micliigan 1,050
And from Quebec C. E. to Buffalo, N. Y 650
With the following branches :
River du Loup to Father Point 10
Quebec to Richmond, on Grand Trunk R. R 96
Montreal to Porthmd, Maine, on do 292
" Troy, New York 260
" Waterloo, C. E 60
Prescott to Ottawa City 54
" Oswego, New York 120
Belleville to Stirling 15
Trenton to Pictou 30
Port Hope to Petorboro' and Lindsay 55
Toronto to Collingwood, on Northern Railway 97
Toronto to Sarnia, on Grand Trunk R. R 170
Godorich to Buffalo 160
St. Mary's to Port Stanley 50
Brantford to Port Dover 32
Windsor to Amherstburg 18
Various branches to small towns and villages 153
3,422
The lines enumerated above embrace all the important
towns and villages in both provinces.
There are thirty-two poles to the mile, and the wire is
smmsm
mm
'f%m
TUE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
267
number eight and nine, galvanized. The line is worked
on the Morse principle, and nearly every thing is taken by
sound. The business, after the crisis of 1857, fell off to a
considerable extent, but during the last two vears it has
gradually increased, and the number of messages passing
over the line in 1861, amounted to 300,000.
NOVA SCOTIAN TELEGRAPH.
Miles. Built
Halifax to New Brunswick line 130 1849
Truro to Pictou 40 1850
Halifax to Liverpool 102 1851
" Yarmouth {via Windsor) 224 1852
Pictou to Sydney, 0. B 195 1852
" Amherst, {via Pugwash) 80 1853
Liverpool to Barrington 62 1853
Halifax to Truro (second wire) 64 1853
Barrington to Yarmouth 45 1854
Antigonishe to Cape Canso 67 1854
St. Peters, C. B., to Arichbat, 0, B. (about) 20 1854
Plaister Cove to Port Hood 28 1855
Wolfvillo to Canning 9 1858
Total miles, 1,066
All except the second wire between Halifax and Truro,
are of number nine ungalvanized wire ; the poles are spruce
and tamarack, from thirty-five to forty to the mile. The
second wire, from Truro to Halifax, is number nine gal-
vanized wire.
Tlio telegraph in Nova Scotia was constructed by the
provincial government.
NEW BRUNSWICK TELEGRAPH
Miles. Built
Calais to St. John 90 1848
St. John to Nova Scotia boundary 140 1849
" Fredericton. C4 1850
Fredericton to Woodstock 64 1851
Monckton to Chatham 100 1851
Newcastle to Bathurst 55 1858
Bathurst to Campbelltown 68 1860
Salesbury to Hillsboro' 22 1856
Total miles, 603
,Llid^''
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iii
CHAPTER I.
EARLY TRADE OF CANADA.
Threk hundred and twenty-seven years ago, Jacques
Cartier, of St. Malo, discovered tb t. Lawrence,* sailed
up its mighty stream for severf ^dred miles, formed
alliances with the Indians, built a fort, and wintered in the
country. In 1549, the colonization of the newly dis-
covered " Canada" was commenced, under the auspices
of Iloberval, the first viceroy, and an attempt made to
establish a traffic In furs with the natives ; but, in conse-
quence of the loss of Roberval and some of his com-
])anions, at sea, in 154:9, and European distractions arising
from the wars between France, Spain, and Austria, no
further effort was made for nearly half a century to
cok)ni;ie the valley of the St. Lawrence. In 1581, a trade
with Canada l)cgan to spring into activity, and in 1591 a
fleet of ships was fitted out by the adventurous inhabitants
of St. Malo, to engage in the Canada trade, and, chiefly,
to procure the teeth of the walrus, which at that time was
common in the gulf and estuary of the St. Lawrence,
In 1003, a company of adventurers, headed by M. de
Chauviii, lieutenant-general of Canada and Acadia, re-
ceived a royal charter from Henry TV., of France, and
established a regular system of trade in the colony. Ten
years later, Champlain obtained a commission authorizing
him to seize every vessel, not holding a license, he sliould
find tratticking in furs between Quebec and the upper part
*Ia 1508, one Thomas Aabert made a voyage from Dieppe to Newfound-
land, and sailed up tuc estuary of the St. Lawrence.
mSS
j:aklt trade of Canada.
269
of the St. Lawrence. In 1628, the celebrated but unscni-
pulous Cardinal de Richelieu organized the " Company of
One Hundred Partners," and conceded to its members in
perpetuity the viccroyalty of New Fnance and Florida,
thus establishing a commercial re(jime in Canada, whose
influence soon extended far and wide among the Indian
races of tlie valley of the St. Lawrence.
The "Company of One Hundred Partners" was dis-
solved by Louis XIY., in 1663, who resumed the juris-
diction over the country, which for thirty-five years had
been under flie rule of a trading association.
Scarcely, liowever, had a year elapsed, when, by a royal
ed t dated 1664, Canada was once more handed over to
the hort -lived commercial bondage of the " "West India
ComiMuy," but, in 1666, free trade with the aborigines
was again declared, subject to certain restrictions and
reservations. The company was permitted to retain the
right to one-fourth of all the beaver-skins, and or'e-tenth
of all the elk-hides exported, besides the traffic wliicli
belonged to Tadoussac at the mouth of the Sauguenay.
For these privileges, the company paid 48,950 livres, or
about $10,000, a livre being worth, at that period, about
one English shilling.
Thus far, the efforts made by the French to colonize
Canada, and open a trade with the different nations inhab-
iting the vast extent of country drained by the St. Law-
rence, had not been productive of much public and private
good, and was marked by a succession of individual dis-
asters which damped the ardor even of the most courageous
and enterprising merchants of that day.
Lake Superior was visited, in 1659, by two traders, who
joined some roving bands of Algonquins, and passed the
winter in that region. In 1660, they returned to Quebec,
escorted by sixty Algonquin canoes laden with furs.
In the autumn of 1678, La Salle, armed with a royal
commission, commenced the construction of a fort at
Niagara; and during the winter he laid the keel of a vea-
ifiuiM*'*"
I! <
■^i|
I \
|i;
270
EARLY TRA.de OF CANADA.
Bcl iiitendocl for the navigation of the upper lakes, about
eix miles above the stupendous cataract. The first U})per
Canadian sliip (for in those days it wa'* worthy of that des-
ignation) was lannclied in the summer of the following year,
and, to the unbounded astonishment and alarm of the savage
Iroquois and Eries who peopled either shore, it sailed
through Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and finally reached Lake
Michigan. The "Griffon," as the vessel was called, met
with an untimely fate on her return; she was wrecked
before she reached the Niagara river, and, with her rich
cargo of furs, sank beneath the waves of the inland sea
wlwse solitudes -she was the first to invade. Not two
centuries (183 years) after the lonely " Griffon" had pene-
trated through the Upper Canadian lakes, the commerce
of the regi(Mi tributary to them was more than sufficient
to em])loy nearly two thousand steamers and sailing ves-
sels, exceeding half a n)illion tons burden, and costing
fifteen millions of dollars.*
Subse(piently to the extinction of the "West India
Company, the trade in peltries was free for a time, with
the exception of l)eaver and elk skins, for which monopoly
70,000 francs a year was paid by the lessees, until it became
the projierty of a French society, called the " Company of
Canada." After an unprosperous existence for a few years,
this trading association, like its predecessors, expired deep-
ly in debt, in 1700. In a report on the condition of CaTi-
ada in 1715, contained in the ''^Documents de Paris,''^
there is an interesting account of colonial affairs, which
throws some light on the state of Canada at that period.
The report is by M. d'Auteuil, who remarks that trade
with the savages, once considerable, had even at that early
date greatly fallen oft'. Ship-building was brisk even 150
* Tho Marquis de Denonvillo, in a proclamation respecting the taking of
tlie post Niaguriv, in 108", states that tlio stocks on whicli La Salle built his
"bark" wore .still soon .-vbovo tho groat lake, and that his "quartorii" were
burned iu 1675 by tho Sen->cas. IIo also states that the Siour de la Salle
navigated Lakes Erie, Huron, and Ulinois (Michigan), for eovcral years.
a^
EAKLT TRADE OF CANADA.
271
years ago ; lieinp for cordage and flax for linen -were ad-
Tantageously grown ; but France did not import Canadian
timber, or continue to v/ork the copper mines on Lake
Huron. The French, at the close of the 17tli centnry,
must have been familiar with the copper treasures of the
sliores of Lake Huron, and perhaps even of Superior, or M.
d'Auteuil would not have regretted their neglect of them.
In 1087. M. de Denonville writes to the French ministry :*
'" The copper, of which I sent a sample to M. Arnon, is
'found at the head of Lake Superior. The body of the mine
is not yet discovered. I have seen one of our voyageui'S,
who assures me that he saw, fifteen months ago, a lump
of 200 lbs. weight, as yellow as gold, in a river which falls
into Lake Superior. When heated, it is cut with an axe ;
'but the superstitious Indians, regarding this piece as a good
spirit, would never permit him to take any of it." The
estimate formed by M. d'Auteuil of the annual value of
the peltries exported from Canada in 1677, was 550,000
francs, and in 1715, two million francs. Thomas Dongan,
governor of the province of New York, in 1687, complains
bitterly of the difficulties he had to encounter in finding,
on his arrival in the colony, " such a contest between the
government of Canada and this (New York) about the
beaver trade, the inland country, and the Indians." The
English found their way to Lakes Ontario and Erio; with
merchandise, for barter with the Ottawa Indians, as early
as 1086, much to the disgust of M. de Denonville, who
writes to his government that he is going to intercept ten
English canoes, laden with merchandise, that have ap-
peared on Lakes Ontario and Erie.
" I regard, my lord," he says, " as of primary impor-
tance the prohibition of the trade to the English, who,
without doubt, would entirely ruin ours, both by the
cheaper bargains they could give the Indians, and by at-
tracting to them the Frenchmen of our colony, who are
* Paria Doc, 1686.
hi!
;!i^ I
272
EARLY TRADE OF CAJiADA.
accustomed to go to the woods."* The " merchandise"
largely employed in those days, and continued up to the
present time, both by British and French, has i^roved the
ruin of the Indian race of this continent. M. de Denon-
villc writes to Governor Denon : " Think you, sir, that re-
ligion will progress whilst your merchants supply, as they
do, eau de vie in abundance, which converts the savages,
as you ought to know, into demons, and their cabins into
counterparts and theatres of hell ?" But what was the
religion spoken of by Denonville? Here is a description
of it : " The presentis to inform Y. R. of our return from
the Iroquois mission, loaded with some spoils rescued from
hell. We bear in our hands more than five hundred chil-
dren, and a number of adults, the most part of whom died
in baptism. We have re-established faith and piety in the
heart of a poor captive church, the first foundations of
which we laid in the Huron country. We have proclaim-
ed the gospel unto all the Iroquois nations, so that they
are henceforth without excuse, and God will be fully justi-
fied against them at the great day of judgment."f
In a memoir addressed to the Marquis of Seignelay,
dated 1687 (Paris Doc), the trade of Canada is described
as being very precarious. "Canada is encompassed by
many powerful English colonies, who labor incessantly to
ruin it by exciting all our savages and drawing them away
with their peltries, for which the English give them a great
deal more merchandise than the French, because they pay
no duty to the king of England.":}:
* Paris Doc., 1687.
f Father Paul Ragucnoau.
X Governor Dongan's reply to M. de Denonville ia characteristic of that
otTicer. " Tlio missionary fathers, if they please but do mo justice, can givo
you an account how careful I havo been to preserve them; I have ordered
our Indians strictly not to exercise any cruelty or insolence against them, and
havo written to the king, my master, who has as much zeal as any prince
living, to propagate the Christian faith, and assured him how necessary it ia
to send to tlicni some fathers to preach the gospel to the natives allied to us,
and care would then bo taken to dissuade them from their drunken debauch*
nmfammm
EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 273
In 1754, only ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons,
were built in Canada. The trade with France employed
about thirty ships, belonging to merchants of La Rochelle.
During the administration of French rule, previously to
the year of peace 1760, when Montreal and all the French
fortresses in Canada were surrendered to Great Britain,
the balance of trade was always against the colony.
The exports, previous to 1759, are stated in a prosperous
year to have been as follows :
Furs to the value of £88,3^3 sterling.
Seal Oil 1M16 "
Flour and Peas I*»i416 "
Timber «-250 "
Total £115,415 "
In 1729, the annual expenditure of the government of
Canada was £16,1GG 13s. 4d ; in 1759, the disastrous
year which witnessed the fall of Quebec, the expenditure
rose to £1,083,330 Gs. Sd. sterling ; but this vast outlay
did not increase the trade ^f the country. Military oper-
ations, glory, and extravagance consuming it all. In 1754,
the number of vessels engaged in foreign trade with the
colony only amounted to hfty-three, leaving a total im-
portation valued at £216,769, and an exportation valued
at £75,560, leaving a balance against the colony of £141,-
209 sterling.
After the fall of Quebec, trade increased and assumed a
healthy tone ; the imports no longer exceeded the exports ;
another race, less addicted to military glory, acquired a
standing in Canada, and began to develop its long neg-
lected resources. But the country people, of French ori-
gin, had received an indelible impress of character and
es ; though certainly our rum cloth as little hurt as your brandy, and in the
opinion of Ohrintians is much more wholesome. Ilowover, to keep the Indiana
temperate and sober, is a very good and Christian performance, but to pro-
hibit them all strong liquors, seems a Uttle hard, and very Turkish."— Parti
JJoc, III
ifH
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V
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'271
EARLY TRADE OF CANADA.
disposition, which they have retained in many particulars
np to tlic present day.
The fuUowin^ table shows the number of vessels and
their aggregate tonnage wliich have arrived at Quebec
from sea, at decennial periods between 176-i and 1861 : *
No. of vessels.
Tons.
Men.
I7r,4
67
5,496
668
176!)
82
7,411
587
1771
11
G,584
597
1780*
69
8,792
724
1791
81
14,760
826
1801
176
20,517
1,564
1811
682
116,687
5,553
1821
4:h
102,786
4,645
Ni.. »f sailing vessels.
Tons.
Men,
1831
1,026
203,160
13,329
1841
1,221
425,118
16,443
1851
1,300
533,427
17,753
18G1
1,277
703,908
19,339
No. of steamers.
Tons.
Men.
18:!1
1
363
21
1841
13
5,057
221
1851
—
18GI
67
71,894
4,335
The folk)wing table represents the coasting trade, below
Quebec, for the last five years:
Year.
Vessels.
Tons.
Men.
1857
130
6,265
495
1858
146
9,372
8G6
1859
100
11,454
1,070
1860
177
12,934
1,160
18G1
277
16,910
1,536
Tliis tal)le shows how rapidly the country below Quebec
is settling, and what an impulse has been given, during
tlio short i)eriod of five years, to the commerce of that
rcc'ion.
Tiie eavliest period recorded, of the dates of the open-
ing of navigation at QueViec, is the 12th April, in 1828;
the latest ])eriod was the 11th May, 18-47 ; a difVcrence of
one month.
The hitest date of the closing of navigation occurred on
the 21st December, 182(5; the earliest date was the 25th
November, 1833 ; also a period of about one month.
*No returns for 1781.
I
9
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^"wm
THE FUR TRADE.
275
"With respect to the period of navigation between Mont-
real and Quebec, the longest duration was in 1830, when
the number of days between the first arrival and the last
sailing was 223 days, or from April 26tli to December
4th. Tlie shortest period occurred in 1836, from May 11th
to November 25th ; 199 days. The average period of
navigation is about seven months.
CHAPTER II.
THE FUR TRADE.
Whosoever chooses to wade through the voluminous
documeiilary history of the early British colonies in Amer-
ica, will find that the fur trade was the all-absorbing
interest, for more than one hundred and fifty years, in the
valley of the St. Lawrence and the vast region tributary
to Hudson's Bav, previous to the second conquest, in
1759.*
The beaver, the present symbol of Canada, was early a
source of considerable revenue to the colonies, and has far
surpassed in importance all other fur-bearing animals ;
although now it is comparatively valueless, the tax on
beaver-skins alone, in early times, being more than the
present worth of the pelt, when the diiFerence in the value
of money is taken into consideration. In 1678, Sir E.
Andros, governor of New York, reports, that ' the rates
or duties upon goods exported are, 2s. for each hogshead
of tobacco, and Is. 3d. on a beaver skin, and other peltry
proportionally."
* Quebec was taken by the British in 1629. Champlain and most of the
JoBuits returned under free passes to France. In 1G32, Charles I., by the
treaty of St. Germain, resigned to Louis XIII., of France, all his title to
Canada and Nora Scotia, and Champlain returned to Quebec, as viceroy of
Canada.
18
'si U
II
II
273
THE FUB TRADE.
«^;f
Governor Dongan, under date 1687, in a report on the
Province of New York, writes: "It will be very neces-
sary for us to encourage our young men to goe a beaver
hunting as the French doe." " I send a map by Mr.
Spragg, whereby your Lop* may see the several goverm'*,
&c., how they lye where the beaver hunting is, & where
it will bee necessary to erect our Country Forts for the
securing of the beaver trade, & keeping the indians in
community with us."* In the same report, Governor
Dongan notices " the custom or duty upon every beaver
skin commonly called a whole beaver, ninepence." "And
that all other fur and peltry be valued accordingly, that
is, for two half beavers ninepence ; for four lapps nine-
pence ; three drillings one shilling and sixpence ; ten
ratoons ninepence ; four foxes ninepence ; four and twenty
meescats ninepence ; ten mallar ninepence ; twenty-four
pounds of moose and deer skin ninepence. And all other
peltry to be valued equivalent to the whole beaver export-
ed out of the province (bull and cow hides excepted)."
Father de Laraberville, a cunning, zealous, but not over-
Bcrupulous missionary, wrote to M. de Denonville, gov-
ernor of Canada, in 1684, that " the envoy of the governor
of New York, who is here, promises the Iroquois goods at
a considerable reduction ; 7 & 8 lbs, of powder for a bea-
ver; as much lead as a man can carry for a beaver, and so
with the rest." It must not be supposed that this was the
actual price paid for a beaver-skin at that time. Father
de Lamberville merely mentions these items to show that
the English were bribing the Iroquois to adopt their side,
in the event of war with the French, or in future exten-
sion of trade. It was a system of presents which gave
rise to the Indian expression, " underground" or secret
presents, in order to avoid the appearance of bribery.
The word " underground" has recently acquired a differ-
ent application, familiar to every ear. The fugitives from
the slaveholder reach Canada by the " underground rail-
* Documentary History of New York.
THE FUK TRADE.
[ery.
ffer-
I'rom
irail-
277
?5
way/' The Confederates obtain information of tlie move-
ments of the Federalists by the " underground telegraph,"
and the late rush across the Canadian frontier, from the
drafting in the United States, was chiefly by the " under-
ground line."
Father de Lamberville defeated Colonel Dongan's at-
tempts to draw the Hurons and Ottawas to his side, by
" underground presents," although Dongan ofiered seven
pounds of powder for a beaver, or as much lead as a man
could carry.
The mission and the beaver were too frequently associa-
ted by the early French missionaries. They made the fur-
traier and the proselytizer one. There is no doubt that
wherever the fur trade extended, there was but too much
need of the humanizing influence of Christianity, but as
long as the missionaries traded in furs, the gentle influ-
ences of religion were not felt. The condition of the
colony in Denonville's time was deplorable. He himself
writes, " I receive letters from the most distant quarters,
from the head of River Mississippi, from the head of Lake
Superior, from Lake des Lenemyngon (Lake St. Anne,
north of Lake Superior), where they propose wonders to
me by establishing posts for the missions, and for the
beavers which abound there. But in truth, so long as the
interior of the colony is not consolidated and secured,
nothing certain can be expected from all those distant
posts, where hitherto people have lived in great disorder,
and in a manner to convert our best Canadians into
banditti."*
The failure on the part of the difierent French compa-
nies to establish successful monopolies, arose in great part,
from a spirit of personal aggrandizement, which influenced
men in power, and the excellent opportunities which the
form of government then prevailing in the colony secured
to them. In 1731 the administration of M. de Beauhar-
* Denonville's Expedition, Paris, Doc. III.
.tfi-
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'278
THE FUR TRADE.
nois was marked by continued erection of new forts, and
displays of military force, for the purpose of keeping the
English traders within proper limits. Soon after the
whole valley of the St, Lawrence came under British
sway, the merchants of Montreal, among whom were many
Scotchmen, seeing the advantage of united action, formed
themselves into a company in 1784, and assumed the title
of the North- West Company of Montreal. The stock of
this company was at first divided into sixteen shares with-
out any capital being deposited, each shareholder furnish-
ing a proportion of such articles as were necessary to carry
on the fur trade. It was soon found, however, that some
of the traders in the Indian country were adverse to this
nnion of interests, and a few of them joined together and
established a rival company. As might have been ex-
pected, a collision between the two companies soon took
place, murder was committed,* and many of the injuries
which rivalry and jealousy could engender, were inflicted
by both sides, far beyond the reach of retributive justice.
At length, in 1787, the discontented traders and the
North- West Company came to an understanding, united
their interests, and founded a commercial establishment
on a sound basis, divided into twenty shares, a certain por-
tion being held by the merchants in Montreal, the remain-
der by the traders in the Indian country. The adventure
for the year amounted to £40,000, L'lt in eleven years
from that date, or in 1789, it reached treble that sum,
yielding large profits to the company. In 1798 the num-
ber of shares was increased to forty-six, and so rapid was
the increase in power and wealth of the corporation, that
the army of employes enlisted in its service rose to up-
wards of four thousand.
The agents of the North-West Company came into fre-
quent collision with the servants of the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany, which not only led to a spirit of rivalry in trade,
♦ Sir Aloxaudor Mackenzie — A General History of the Fur Trade.
In
ag£
of til
r^rj:
TUE FUR TRADE.
279
baffling description, but also to numerous encounters, in
which much blood was shed and many lives lost. Wearied
of this ruinous competition, and harassed by the threat-
ened difficulties, which the continuance of so much
crime and bloodshed amonf2;st their half-wild subordi-
nates were drawing upon them, the two companies agreed
to unite, and in 1821 an end was put to contention and
rivalry, by the amalgamation of the two bodies, under the
title of the Hudson's Bay Company. From the date of
tiie union a new era in the fur tn.de began, which will be
better described after a brief history has been given of one
of the most successful and flourishing monopolies the
world has ever seen.
The Hudson's Bay Company was incorporated in the
year 1670, under a royal charter of Charles the Second,
which granted them certain territories in North America,
together with exclusive privileges of trade and other rights
and advantages. During the first twenty years of their
existence the profits of the company were so great* that,
notwithstanding considerable losses sustained by the cap-
ture of their establishments by the French, amounting in
value to £118,014, they were enabled to make a payment
to the proprietors, in 1081, of fifty per cent., and a further
payment in 1089 of twenty -five per cent.
In 1690 the stock was trebled witiiout any call being
made, besides affording a payment to the proprietors of
twenty-five per cent, on the increased or newly created
stock. From 1692 to 1097 the company incurred loss and
damage to the amount of £97,500 sterling, from the French.
In 1720 their circumstances were so tar improved that they
again trebled their capital stock, with only a call of ten
per cent, from the proprietors, on M'hich they paid divi-
dends averaging nine per cent, for many years, showing
profits on the originally subscribed capital stock actually
* Soe letter from the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Lords
of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, February 7th, 1838.
mm
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280
THE FUR TKADE.
paid up, of between sixty and seventy per cent, per an-
num, from the year 1690 to 1800, or during a period of
110 years.
Up to tlii8 time the Hudson's Bay Company enjoyed a
monopoly of the fur trade, and reaped a rich harvest of
Avealth and influence.
In 1783 the North-West Company was formed, having
its head-quarters at Montreal. The North- West Company
soon rose to the position of a formidable rival to the Hud-
son's Bay Company, and the territory the two companies
traded in l)ecame the scene of animosities, feuds, and blood-
shed, involving the destruction of property, the demoraliza-
tion of the Indians, and the ruin of the fur trade. Owing to
this opposition, the interests of the Hudson's Bay Company
suffered to such an extent, that between 1800 and 1821, a
period of twenty-two years, their dividends were, for the
flrst eight years reduced to four per cent. During the next
six years they could pay no dividend at all, and for the re-
maining eight they could pay only four per cent.
In the year 1821 a union between' the N rtli-West and
Bay Companies took place, iinrha* the title of the
imI upon to r,ay £100
' stock in trade
ipital st >ck of
>aid in the years
tlt\) arly dividends of
Hudson's
last named. The proprietary werr
per cent, upon their capit wh
of both parties in the ♦
£400,000, on which
1821 to 1824, and f lat tin-
to
to'-
the
five per cent, to 1828 ; . .om IS^'^ to 1832 a dividend of five
per cent., with a bonus of ten per cent., was paid, and from
1832 to 1837 a dividend of five per cent.^ .vitli ai iverage
bonus of six per cent. The distribution of pr 'i
shareholders fin- the years 1847 to 1856 both in
as follows :
1847 to 1849, ten per cent, per annum ; 18.'
per cent, per annum, of which ten per cent, wah added to
stock ; 1851, ten per cent. ; 1852, fifteen percent., of which
five per cent, was added to stock ; 1853, £18 4*. 6d., of
which £8 4s. Qd. was added to stock ; 1854 to 1856, ten
ve, was
twenty
i|
THE FrR TKADE. 2S1
per cent, per annum dividend.* Of 268 proprietors in
July 1856, 196 have purchased their stock at from 220 to
240 per cent.f
The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are managed
by a governor-in-chief, sixteen chief-factors, l^venty-nino
chief-traders, iive surgeons, eighty-seven clerks, sixty-
seven post-masters, twelve hundred permanent servants,
and five hundred voyageurs, besides temporary employes of
different ranks, chiefly consisting of voyageurs and servants.
The total number of persons in the employ of the Hudson's
Bay Company is about 3,000.
The late Sir George Simpson was governor of the Hud-
son's Bay Company for forty years. He exercised a gen-
eral supervision over the company's affairs, presided at
their councils in the country, and had the principal direction
of the whole interior management in North America. The
* Letter from R. G. Smith, Esq., Secretary to the Hudson's Bay Company,
to H. Moriviile, Esq. — Appendix to Report from the Select Committee on the
Hudson's Bay Company.
f The capital employed by the Hudson's Bay Company was as follows: —
June 1st, 1856: —
£ s. d.
Amount of assets 1,468,301 16 3
Amount of liabilities, 203,233 i6 11
Capital 1,265,065 19 4
Consisting of stock, standing in the name of the proprietors, 500,000 0 0
Valuation of the Company's lands and buildings, exclusive
of Vancouver's Island and Oregon 318,884 12 8
Amount expended up to 10th September, 1856, in sending
minors and laborers to Vancouver's Island, in the coal
mines, and other objects of colonization exclusive of
the trading establishments of the company, and which
amount will bo repayable by government if possession
of the island is resumed 87,011 8 3
Amount invested in Fort Victoria, and other eGtablish-
menta and posts on Vancouver's Island, estimated at 75,000 0 0
Amount paid to the Earl of Selkirk for lied River Settle-
ment 84,111 18 5
Property and investments in the territory of Oregoil,
ceded to the United States by the treaty of 1 840, and
which are secured to the Company as possessing rights
under that treaty— $1,000,000 200,000 0 0
Total £1,265,067 19 4
282
THE FUR TRADE,
governor is assisted by a council for each of the two de-
partnienta into which the territory is divided.
The seat of council for the northern department is at
Norway Il^use, on Lake Winnipeg ; for the southern de-
partment at Michipicoten, Lake Superior, or Moose Fac-
tory, on James's Bay. The council consists of the chief
officei's of the company, the chief factors being ex-oj/ioio
members of council. Their deliberations are conducted in
private. The sixteen chief factors are in charge of differ-
ent districts in tlie territory, and a co'tain number of them
assemble every year at Norway House, for the northern
department, generally about the middle of June, to meet
the governor and transact business. Seven chief factors,
with the governor, form a quorum, but if a sufficient num-
ber of the higher rank o+' ofticers are not present, a quorum
is established by the admission of chief traders.
The Hudson's l^ay Company's operations extend not
only over that part of North America called Rupert's
Land and the Iiulian ten-itory, but also over part of Can-
ada, Newfoundland, Oregon, Russian America, and the
Sandwich Isles.
Tlie o})erations of tlie Hudson's Bay Company extend
over territories whose inhabitants owe allegianc'c to three
diifcreiit and independent governments, British, Russian,
and the United States. These immense territories, exceed-
ing 4,500,000 square miles in area, are divided, for the
exclusive purposes of the fur trade, into four departments
and thirty-three districts, in which are included one hun-
dred and fifty-tv/o posts, commanding the services of three
tlionsand agents, traders, voyageurs, and servants, besides
giving of'casional' or constant employment to a))out one
hundred thousand savage Indian hunters. Armed vessels,
both sailing and steam, are employed on the north-west
coast to carry on the fur tiade with the warlike natives of
that distant region. More than twenty years ago the trade
of the north-west coast gave employment to about one
thousand men, occupying twenty-onepennanen" esl^blish-
iwk
THE FUR TRADE.
283
ments, or engaged in navigating five arraad sailing vessels,
and one armed steamer, varying from one hundred to
three hundred tons in burden. History does not furnish
another example of an association of private individuals
exerting so powerful an influence over so large an extent
of the earth's surface, and administering their aftairs with
such consunnuate skill, and unwavering devotion to the
original objects of their incorporation.
The Hudson's Bay Company, even when they relinquish
the valley of the Saskatchewan, and confine their opera-
tions to the region north of the 56th parallel of latitude,
will still liolu much of the fur trade in their grasp. P"t
tliey will do so as an independent company, engaged in
open competitive rivalry with all who choose to engage in
that diilicult and precarious traffic. The organization ex-
isting among the olficers and servants of this company ;
their acquaintance with the habits, language, and hunt-
ing-grountls of the Indians of the North American conti-
nent ; and, more especially, the fact that they are not only
personally acquainted with almost every Indian in North
America, but have the means, if it suit the purposes of
trade, of communicating with them and supplying their
wants, will secure to this admirably organized association
the command of the iiiost lucrative branches of the fur
trade, for many years to come. If the history of any fur-
trading company in America were faithfully written, it
would exhibit to the world a systematic course of action
as surely destructive to the Indian race of this continent,
within the limits of the law, as if it had been a ]»redeter-
mined object from the beginning of their operations to the
close. The history, indeed, of almost any one abandoned
fort or ])08t, during the prosperous existence of a company,
would be a type of the history of the entire trade, and its
prejudicial influences on the Indian races. An abandoned
post implies, in general, the utter destruction of the fur-
bearing animals, or of the sources of food upon which the
Indian hunters formerl}'^ subsisted. It is an acknowledg-
i \u
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Sllll'-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE.
ineiit that the country which once served the post has been
•onvurted into an inhospitable desert, wholly incapable, in
its wild and uncultivated state, of supplying the small de-
mands of the former inhabitants of the district it served.
TABLE SHOWING TUB ANN"JAL EXPORTATION OP PURS AND SKINS FROM CA'IADA,
EXCLUSIVE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S EXPORTS :
1853,
$127,694
1858,
$163,213
1854,
69,357
1859,
229,147
1855,
115,260
1860,
227,115
1856,
207,753
1861,
230,596
1857,
154,879
All of the furs collected by the Hudson's Bay Company
go to England, The Canadian fur trade is very limited in
comparison Avith that of the giant monopolist. The total
value of the export of furs amounted, in 18G1, to $228,918 ;
$84,601 worth going to the United States, the remain-
der to Great Britain. The monopoly enjoyed by the
Hudson's Bay Company is now extinguished by the expi-
ration of their charter, and, as soon as ready communica-
tion between Canada and the valley of the Saskatchewan
is established, tlie Canadian fur trade will revive again,
although it will never attain a tithe of the importance it
possessed during tlie palmy days of the North- West Com-
pany.
CHAPTER III.
SIIIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE.
Snii'-nuiLDiNO was one of the earliest branches of indus-
tiy cultivated in Canada. The memorials contained in the
" Documents do Paris'^ inform us, that as early as 1715,
ship-building at Quebec was pretty brisk, although there
was great reason for complaint that the French would not
import the fine timber of the country. The fur trade ap-
peared to monopolize all the attention of the French rulers ;
th
Vf
SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE.
285
and altliongli the British drew large supplies of lumber
from the Atlantic provinces, New France contributed no
i:)art of her immense forest treasures to increase the naval
resources of the great rival of England on the seas. M. de
Maurepas, the French minister of marine in 1731, Avas
fully alive to the importance of ship-building, for he wrote
some strong dispatches to the governor, urging the stimu-
lation of this branch of industry, and promised that ships
of war should be constructed in Canada, if some good
mtM-c'hant vessels were turned out. He offered a premium
of 500 francs for every vessel gauging 200 tons or over of
colonial build, and sold in France or the Antilles, and 150
francs premium for each barge of thirty or forty tons, if
similarlv dis])Osed of.
In 1752, ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were
built in Canada, but the materials were badly chosen, and
the price high. It is remarkable, that even at that early
period of the history of French Canadian industry, a num-
ber of vessels, used in the trade of Canada, were purchased
from the enterprising New Englanders With the finest
forests in the world for ship-building, unequalled facilities
for bringing lumber to the seaboard, and the encourage-
ment of a liberal bounty, French enterprise in Canada, to-
ward the middle of the last century, was not equal to the
task of seizing upon the only industry which would tend
to secure to them the peaceable possession of the colony
in the event of a war with their great and industrious rival,
Britain, besides encouraging immigration, amassing wealth,
and establishir •• a political importance.
In 1734: there were fifty-two saw-mills in that part of
this province which lies east of the Ottawa; the popula-
tion of the country being 37,252 souls. In 1827, or nearly
one hundred years later, the number of saw-mills had in-
creased to 565, with a population of 471,870.
The following table shows the number and tonnage of
the sea-gi>ing vessels built at Queuee during decennial
periods, between 1791 and 18G1 :
npV
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286 BHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE.
Year. No. of ships. Tonn.
1701 12 574
1801 24 3,40-i
1811 54 13,(!91
1821 22 2,254
i8ai 38 G,no
1841 G4 23,122
1851 GO 41,005
1801 51 25,546 *
Since 1787, there have been 2,939 ships built at Quebec,
l)eiu«x in the a«i;^i,a-egate 890,201 tons burden. The hirgest
ship ever constructed on this continent was built in Que-
bec, in 1825. It was called the Baron of Renfrew, and
measured 5,294 tons. Another large wooden ship was
built in 1821:, measuring 3,690 tons: but these huge wood-
en vessels were not successful.
This enumeration does not include other vessels which
were constructed at the different ports of the valley of the
St. Lawrence, and sometimes sent across the Atlantic; for
sale. Such vessels have been recently built on Lake Hu-
ron, at Toronto, tfec, &c., l)ut in (H)nsequence of the general
depression in trade, since the year 1857, little has been
done in ship-huilding in the lake districts, although there
is every ])ros})ect that it will become an important indus-
try now that ship communication with Europe and Lake
Superior, by means of the Canadian canals, without break-
ing bulk, is easily and profitably accomplished.
Thelumber trade was long in growing to importance du-
ring the early ITustory of Canada. In 1723 nineteen vessels
cleared from (Quebec, containing cargoes of peltries, lum-
ber, and provisions ; but tliere does not appear to have been
any considerable trade in lumber between Europe and
Canada until the close of the eighteenth century.
In 1786, the exports of fish, li(ii)hei\ &c., from Labrador
and Gaspe were returned at -£45,000 sterling, and furs and
other colonial produce from Quebec at .£145,116 sterling ;
but lumber is not specially included as an article of com-
♦Tho average value of ships built nt Quebec is taken at .$40 a ton; the ton-
iiago c-au bo obtained at oace hj dividiuK the value by 40.
li«ii lii
BHIP-BinLDING AND THE LUMBER TilADE.
287
merce. In 1808, the products of the forest became a sepa-
rate item, and we find oak and pine timber, staves, masts,
&c., exported, to the value of £157,360 sterling; but from
the United States the imports of lumber were to the amount
of £70,000 sterling, the greater part of which would be in-
cluded in the amount specified above. The different arti-
cles which make up Canadian lumber exports have been
enumerated in the chapter on " Forest Industry." It will
suffice for present purposes to state the condition of the
export trade during the years 1824 to 1829 inclusive, with
the statistical data of the trade from 1853 to 1861 inclu-
sive.
Exports of lumber from Quebec during the years 1824,
1825, 1826, 1827, and 1829 :
1824.
1,132
1,289
19,994
Masts ,
Spars
Oak timber, planks . .
" " tons
Pino " planks..
" " tons
Staves 3,667,188
Stave ends 30,41G
Deals and boards 1,052,147
Hoops 147,800
Ashes, barrels 65,108
1825.
988
1,799
33,152
1824
751
2,892
182T.
983
1,999
1829.
973
1,079
9G,026 128,078
3,934,410
19,295
1,479,565
125,536
65,502
23,822 21,763
24,411
123,5io
>'^'^^ l± r,'J7 IT-JO
129,151 86,090
4,164,688 5,476,548
61,191 68,1
823,922 1,621,658 9,543,645
98,888 34
39,589 27,303 30,425
Comparative statement of the value of the products of the
forest, during the years 1853 to 1861 inclusive:*
1853,
$9,293,3.38
1858,
$9,284,514
1851,
9,912,008
1859,
9,6(i3,n62
1855,
7,832,660
1860,
11,012,253
1856,
9,802,130
1861,
9,572,645
1857,
11,575,508
The annual exportation may be stated at 30,000,000
cubic feet of timber in the rough state, and about 400,-
000,000 feet, board measure, of sawed lumber. The revenue
derived from timber cut in the public forests was $383,150,
in 1861. There is very good ground for the expectation
* Furs are not included in this estimate.
r^i
288 SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE.
that new markets in continental Europe will soon be opened
for Canadian timber. Already the beginning of this trade
has been made, by the dispatch of twenty cargoes to France,
Spain, and Germany, in 1861. Tiie products of the forest
hitherto exported have been confined to a few species of
timber trees, not exceeding a dozen at the most. When
it is known tliat there are upwards of thirty kinds of forest
trees, out of some sixty or seventy species with whicii our
forests are filled, well adapted to the wants of European
manufactures, it is confidently anticipated that a new im-
pulse will soon be given to the lumber trade of the Province,
in a difl^'erent direction to that whicli it has hitherto taken.
Prior to 1858, England imported more timber from the
Bi-itish American Provinces than from all other countries.
This predominance ceased in the next succeeding year,
when the British importations stood thus :
1869.
From British America 1,301, 218 loads. '
" Foreign countries 1,G55,'232 "
1860.
From British America 1,26'1,360 loads.
" Foreign countries 1,537,020 "
In the present year (1862), eight vessels have already
sailed for German ports, their destination and cargoes
being as follows :
Name of Port. No. of Vessels. Cargo.
Stettin 1 Oak.
Hamburg 3 Oak and pine.
Bremen 4 Rod and white pine, walnut, Ac
This trade promises to be of the greatest value to Canada,
and if the government adopt wise and liberal measures to
secure a foreign European market, the gain which will re-
sult to Canada, in many ways, is incalculable. Immigra-
tion from those countries can be fostered in no better way
than l)y a growing trade in the forest productions of the
British Provinces.
The shipments of timber from Quebec, for the year end-
ing December Ist, 1862, as compared with those of 1860
and 1861, were as follows:
i
¥
BHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBEK TRADE. 289
1860. 1861. 1862.
Oak 1,485,400 ft. 1,725,160 ft. 1,46:5,680 ft.
Elm 1,021,560" 1,269,329" 1,099,200"
Ash 88,440 " 96,560 " 99,840 "
Birch 462,160" 255,320" 165,480"
Tamarac 58,240" 50,240" 57,120"
Wluto pine, square ) jg 252,600 " 19,447,920 " 15,493,080 "
and wanj' )
Red pine 2,502,880" 2,855,240" 2,491,120"
The export of the leading items for 1862, falls slightly
below the average shipments of the five years, from 1853
to 1857 ; but the stock at Quebec considerably exceeds
that of any previous season, being 19,000,000 feet of pine
against 10,000,000, the average stock between 1853 and
1857.
The prices current for the leading descriptions of timber
in the raft, in Quebec, on the 1st December, compare as
follows during the years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861.
■White p'mo. Eed plno. Oak, Elm.
1862.
3id to Gd. lid. to lOd Is. 2d. to Os. Od. did. to Is. lei
1861.
bid. to G^d. Sid. to lid Is. 3d. to Is. 5d. 9d. to Is. Id.
1860.
&id. to Gid. 8d. to lid. Is. 2d. to Is. 3d. 7^^. to Is. Id
1859.
4}d. to 6d. 8d. to Is. Is. to Is. 3d. I^d. to Is. 2d.
1858.
4d. to 5Jd. 9d. to Is. Is. 4d. to Is. 5d. lOd. to Is. Od,
The remarkable increase in the grain trade of Montreal,
is seriously aifecting the shipments of lumber at Quebec.
Fully one-half of the vessels which formerly took in car-
goes of luml)cr at Quebec, now go to Montreal for grain.
This withdrawal of 400 or 500 large sea-going vessels, is
diminishing the industry of the port of Quebec, while
Montreal is becoming the great seat of foreign commerce.
. r
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290
THE PRODUCE TRADE.
CHAPTER IT.
THE PRODUCE TRADE,
In 1734, when Lower Canada liad a population of
37,252, the lands occupied and in tillaj^e amounted to
163,111 arpeuts, and there were produced 737,892 minots
of wheat, 1(!3,988 minots of oats, 166,054 lbs. of tobacco,
and 92,246 lbs. of flax. The following table shows the ex-
port of wheat which took place from the port of Quebec,
from 1793 to 1802, inclusive. Nearly the whole of tliis ex-
portation must have been the growth of Lower Canada, for
the upper division of the province did not contain more
than 50,000 inhabitants, at the beginning of the 19th
century.
Years.
Wheat (bush.)
Flour (bbls.)
Biscuit (cwt.)
1793,
487,000
10,900
9,800
1791,
414,000
13,700
15,000
1795,
395,000
18,000
20,000
1790,*
3,106
4,300
3,800
1797,
31,000
14,000
8,000
1798,
92,000
9,500
12,000
1799,
129,000
14,400
21,500
1800,
217,000
20,000
25,000
1801,
473,000
38,000
32,300
1802,
1,010,033
28,300
22,051
Total,
3,251,139
171,100
169,451
Annual aver;
ige, 325,114
17,100
16,945
Duri'ig tlie years 1816 to 1822, inclusive, the exports
of wheat averaged 195,386 bushels ; of barrels of flour,
28,323 ; and of hundred weights of biscuit, 9,694, annually.
In 1824, 25, 26, 27, 29, and 30, the export of wheat and
flour amounted to:
Wheat.
Flour.
1824,
1825,
1820,
5,396 minota.
718,019 "
228,635 "
41,001 barrels
40,003 "
33,671 "
1827,
1829,
391,420
40,402
11
63,839 "
2,859 "
1830,
590,081
II
35,836 "
* In consequenco of the failure of the crops in 1 795, the governor in council
proclaimed an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of wheat.
Ik-
kcil
THE PKODUCfi TRADE.
291
These fluctuating exports show the precarionsness of the
wheat crop in Lower Canada — which is still further ex-
emplified by the following table.
Produce of wheat in Lower Canada, during the years
1831, 1844, and 1851 :
Year. Bnshels.
18:U 3,404,756
1844 942,8:55
1851 3,045,600
There can be no doubt, however, that importations from
the United States, especially of flour, enabled larger ex-
ports to be made from Quebec than would otherwise have
taken place, for in 1830 we find 10,633 barrels of flour im-
ported into Montreal, and 103 barrels of wheat.
The rise and progress of the grain trade of Canada are
well shown by the following table of exports :*
TABLE OP WHEAT EXPORTS,
Tear.
Bushuls of wheat.*
Tear.
Bushels of wheat
1838,
296,020
1850,
4,547,224
1839,
249,471
1851,
4,275,896
1840,
1,739,119
1852,
6,490,718
1841,
2,313,836
1853,
6,597.193
1842,
1,678,102
1854,
3,781,534
1843,
1,193,918
1855,
6,413,428
1844,
2,350,018
1856,
9,301,531
1845,
2,507,392
1857,
6,482,199
1846,
3,312,757
1858,
5,610,559
1847,
3,883,156
1859,
4,032,627
1848,
2,248,016
1860,
8,431,253
1849,
3,645,320
1861,
13,369,727
The total amount of spring and fall wheat grown in
Upper Canada, in 1861, exceeded 24,500,000 bushels.
The absolute value of all agricultural products ex])orted,
of home and foreign production, for the years 1853 to
1861, inclusive, is given in the following table of home
and foreign production :
Tear.
1858,
1859,
1860,
1861,
Tear.
Amount.
1853,
$8,032,535
1864,
7,316,160
1866,
13,130,399
1856,
14,972,276
1857,
8,882,825
Amount.
$7,904,400
7,339,708
14,259,225
18,244,631
* Ono barrel of flour is estimated equal to five bushels of wheat.
19
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202 PRESENT TRADE.
CHAPTER V.
PRESENT TRADE.
In the year 1808, the trade of the Province of Canada
assumed proportions which entitled it to the serious atten-
tion of the mother country ; for although the population
of Upper and Lower Canada did not exceed 300,000 in
that year, the entire trade of the colony, including exports
and imports, amounted to £1,776,060 sterling, or about
$8,400,000. This trade was made up of the following
items : —
1808.
No. of vessels engaged in the trade 334
Exports From Quebec.
Furs and other colonial produce £350,000
"Wheat, biscuit, flour 171,200
Oak and pine timber, staves, masts, &c 157,360
Pot and pearl ashes 290,000
New ships — 3,750 tons, at £10 sterling per ton 37,500
Fish, lumber, oil, &c., from Labrador and Gaspe. . . . 120,000
Exports to the United States, sundries, about 30,000
Total exports £1,156,060
Imports from England: —
Manufactured goods £200,000
West India produce 130,000
Imports from United States : — '
Merchandise, tea, provisions, tobacco 100,000
Oats, pine, masts, &c 70,000
Pot and pearl ashes 110,000
Total imports £610,000
Balance in favor of the colony £546,060
Tlie exports of 1830 show a remarkable increase in the
trade of the colony, as will be seen by the following table :
1830.
Vessels. Tons.
To Groat Britain from Quebec 571 169,046
" " " Ireland 214 57,233
" " " Jersey 1 113
eign
TU
K
PRESENT TRADE.
293
Tessels.
To Great Britain from Gibraltar
M
l(
«
M
II
<l
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
2
Spain 1
Portugal 1
British North America 130
" "West Indies. . . 57
United States 4
Gaspe 43
Tons.
226
105
146
9,153
a, 113
432
6,711
Total vessels 1,024 Tons, 251,278
Comparative statement of imports, exhibiting the value
of goods entered for consumption in Canada during the
years 1852 to 1861, inclusive: /
North American
other Foreign
Tear.
Great Britain.
Colonies.
West Indies. United State*.
Countries.
1852,
$9,671,132
$480,954
$5,115
$8,477,693
$651,598
1853,
18,489,120
632,660
3,479
11,782,147
1,074,030
1854,
22,963,331
675,115
2,673
15,533,098
1,355,110
1855,
13,303,460
865,988
14,135
20,828,676
1,073,909
1856,
18,212,934
1,032,595
17,613
22,704,509
1,616,736
1857,
17,559,025
751,888
26,823
20,224,651
868,211
1858,
12,287,053
423,826
15,635,565
732,083
1859,
14,780,084
381,755
533
17,592,916
793,873
1860,
15,859,980
393,864
15,802
17,273,029
905,260
1861,
20,386,937
499,177
371
21,069,388
1,098,963
From the foregoing tables it will be seen that the im-
ports from Great Britain have more than doubled in ten
years. The trade with the sister colonies is about the
same in value as it was ten years ago. The West India
import trade has almost ceased to exist. The imports
from the United States have increased from eight millions
to twenty-one millions, and the trade with all other for-
eign countries is now about the same in value as it was in
1853.
The value of the total imports of goods entered for con-
sumption in Canada during the same years is as follows :
1852,
$20,286,493
1857,
$39,430,598
1853,
31,981,436
1858,
29,078,527
1854,
40,529,325
1859,
33,555,161
1855,
36,086,169
1860,
34,447,935
1856,
43,584,387
1861.
43,054,836
1856, 43,584,387 1861. 43,054,836
The years 1854, '5, and '6, were distinguished by unusual
:>iir
:■¥!
'■I IK
in
n I
< :ll
m
2'J4
PKE8ENT TBADE.
commercial excitement, followed by a corresponding de-
pression— the imports in 1861 not equalling tliose of
1856, while those of 1858 fell short to the extent of nearly
$3,000,000 of the value of imports in 1853.
Table showing the total value of exports and imports,
and the aggregate value of the foreign trade of the prov-
ince, from 1852 to 1861 :
Year.
Export*.
Imports.
Total valne of Trade
1852,
$14,055,973
$20,286,493
$34,342,466
1853,
22,012,230
31,981,436
53,993,666
1854,
21,249,319
40,529,325
61,778,644
1855,
28,188,461
36,086,169
64,274,630
1856,
32,047,017
43,584,387
75,631,404
1857,
27,006,624
39,430,598
66,437,222
1858,
23,472,609
29,078,627
52,551,136
1859,
24,766,981
33,555,161
68,322,142
18G0,
34,631,890
34,441,621
69,073,611
1861,
36,614,195
43,046,823
79,661,018
The total value of Canadian foreign trade has more than
doubled within ten years, and last year it reached the im-
posing value of nearly $80,000,000.
It now remains to exhibit the manner in which this
enormous trade is carried on, by a statement showing —
First: the number of vessels entered inward and outward,
from and for sea, during the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive:
Vessels Inward from Sea.
Vessels Outward for Sea.
Tear.
Total Number. Tonnage.
Total Number. Tonnage
1853,
1,798 622,579
1,821 658,853
1854,
1,890 705,342
2,018 781,755
1855,
1,168 419,552
1,219 451,241
1856,
1,494 550,573
1,532 573,648
1857,
k,047 748,425
1,848 731,367
1858,
1,657 613,813
1,662 623,046
1859,
1,715 641,662
1,618 640,571
1860,
1,992 831,434
1,923 821,791
1861,
2,442 1,077,128
2,389 1,059,667
Second : tlie amount of Canadian and American ton-
nage, inward and outward, with the interco'irse by inland
navigation between Canada and the United States :
TBESENT TRADE.
1858.
Tons.
29i
Tons.
sail 730,174 f ••••3.144,297
American steam 3,0.S8,672 / n r,e a.^^
sail 477;728} ••••3,516,400
Canadian steam 3,014,123)
Total inward.9 and outwards 7,2(50,697
Add soa-going vessels, as above 1,230,859
Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,4D7,556
1859.
Tons.
Canadian steam 1,552,711) •y-^ri
sail 801,225 f ^''^''•^>
American steam
Tons.
93G
jrican steam 4,090,690 ) . ^q„ ooj
" sail 586,704 p---*'^S2,394
Total inwards and outwards 7,036,330
Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,282,233
Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,318,563
1861.
Tons.
Canadian steam ,
" sail
American steam 2, , _
sail 674,673 J"
Tons.
.2,755,3^8
.3,097,187
Total inwards and outwards 5,852,525
Add sea-going vessels, as above 2,149,300
Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,001,885
The year 1859 was one of great depression in Canada ;
tlie decrease in 1861 was probably due to tlie railways,
which now afford an excellent means of communication
between the two countries, to the detriment of lake and
river navigation.
CANADIAN STEAMERS AND SAILING VESSELS REGISTERED IN 1861.
Vessels Built. Tonnage.
Steam 11 1,155
SaUing 85 32,032
Total
96 33,187
t ',!
m
'-•<
1
^i
11
IS
1 'y
m
296
PRESENT TRADE.
VESSELS BEGISTEUED.
No. Tonnage.
Steam 23 9,61G
SaLL 150 34,749
173
44,365
THE RECIPROCITY TREATY.
The reciprocity treaty between the United Stt tes and
Gi'eat Britain, has been the subject of prolonged discus-
sion on the part of a few interests among; those mercantile
communities of the United States and Canada, wliicii are
not advantageously affected by the conditions of the treaty.
The weiglit of evidence, as deduced f) )m statistical returns,
goes to establish the fact that the advantages derived by
botli countries are very considerable, and will far outweigh
the complaints of sectional interests which have attempted
its destruction.
The following are the leading points of the treaty :
I. The inhabitants of the United States possess, under
the reciprocity treaty, the right to take fish of any kind,
except sttell-fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, in the bays,
liai'bors, and creeks, of anv of the British provinces, with-
out being rcfitricted to any distance from the shore ; with
permission to land upon the coasts and shores of those
provinces, for thu purpose of drying their nets and curing
fish.
II. British subjects possess, in common with the citizens
of the United States, the liberty to take fish of any kind,
except shell-fish, on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of
' iC United States, north of the thirty-sixth parallel of
north latitude ; with the same privileges as to landing on
the sea-coast as are enjoyed by American citizens in the
British Provinces.
III. Certain articles, being the growth and produce of
the British colonies, or of the United States, are admitted
into eacli country free of duty, respectively. (The most
important of these articles are grain, flour, breadstuifs,
PRESENT TRADE.
297
animals, fresh, smoked, and salted meats, fish, lumber of
all kinds, poultry, cotton wool, hides, ores of metals, pite'
tar, ashes, flax, hemp, unmanufactured tobacco, rice, &c.)
TV. The right to navigate the River St. Lawrence, and
the canals of Canada, is equally enjoyed by the citizens
of the United States and of the British Provinces. This
right extends also to Lake Michigan ; and no export duty
on lumber cut in Maine, and passing through New Bruns-
wick to the sea, can be levied.
The treaty was signed June 5th, 1854, and may termi-
nate after the expiration of ien years.
STATEMENT SIIOWIKO THE AVIIOLE TRADE IN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BE:;WEEN
CANADA AND TUB UNITED STATES, DURING ELEVKN YEARS.
Amount of tbo
Years.
Imports from Uniteil Exports from Cannda
States into Canada. to United Htutcs.
1851,
$8,365,764
1852,
8,477,693
1853,
11,782,144
1854,*
15,533,096
1855,
20,828,676
1856,
22,704,508
1857,
20,224,648
1858,
15,635,565
1859,
17,592,916
1860,
' 17,273,029
1861,
21,069,388
$4,071,544
6,284,520
8,936,380
8,649,000
16,737,276
17,979,752
13,206,436
11,930,094
13,922,314
18,427,968
14,386,427
■whole trade.
$12,437,308
14,762,213
20,718,524
24,182,096
37,565,952
40,684,260
33,431,084
27,665,659
31,515,231*
35,700,907
35,455,815
In ten years the amount of the trade between the United
States and Cinada lias nearly trebled itself, and risen
from twelve millions to thirty-five millions of dollars, with-
out including those articles which are free under the treaty.
STATEifENT SIIOWINO THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THB
UNITED STATES, OF ARTICLES FREE UNDER THE TREATY, TO JANUARY 1, 1861.
Tear.
Imports into tho
United States
from Canada.
1855,
$16,476,093
1856,
17,810,684
1857,
17,812,308
1858,
11,514,364
1859,
1860,
15,289,070
20,365,829
Imports into Canada
from tho
United Btutes.
$7,725,561
7,909,554
8,642,030
5,564,616
7,106,116
7,069,689
KxcpKs of Imports
free under the treaty
Id favor of Cauouu.
$8,750,532
9,9(M,130
4,nii,278
6,!)J 9,749
8, 1 82,954
13,296,140
Totals, $94,268,343 $44,917,566 $50,250,783
♦ Epoch of the Reciprocity Treaty.
.-'
1^.
ufiN'^i
'^.■r «■
r- il
'■. I
^: n
I' >'
298
THK CHANNPXS OF TRADE.
THE CHANNELS OF TRADE.
The successive governments of Canada have always
kept in view the importance of attracting the trade of the
countiy, and of the Western States of the American Union,
to the St. Lawrence. Tliis route is beginning to engage
increased attention from both importers and exporters.
Tlie tollowing tables show the value of the St. Lawrence
traffic, for 1857 to 1861, inclusive :
STATEMENT OP Tlffi VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS Via THE ST. LAWRENCE,
WITH THE TONNAGE OP VESSELS, INWARDS AND OUTWARDS, DURINO THB
YEARS 1857 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE.
Tonnage of vessels.
Total trad© via
Year.
Value of exports.
Valufi of Imports,
Inwards.
Outwards.
J i. Lawrence.
1857,
$13, 751!, 7 87
$14,561,884
748,425
731,367
$28,318,671*
1H58,
9,727,41.-?
10,795,077
6i:!,813
632,046
20,522,490
18.J!»,
8,821,062
" ] 1,540,068
641,662
640,571
20,370,730
18G0,
l'J,0:i7,403
13,548,665
831,434
821,791
27,586,068
18G1,
22,524,735
17,249,055
1,087,128
1,059,667
39,773,790
Ilcnce it appears that the St. Lawrence trade has risen
in value, daring a period of five years, from twenty-eight
millions to thirty-nine millions of dollars. Bat the grand
system of internal navigation which this river affords, with
its magniiicent canals, will eventually become of great im-
portance to the " Far West." The prospective value of the
St. Lawrence route to Canada may be best shown by the
following table :
VALUE OP GOODS IN TRANSITU FOR THE UNITED STATES.
Year. Imports. Exports. Total
1857 $183,790 .... $183,790
1858 26,916 .... 26,916
1859 76,314 .... 76,314
1860 21,505 21,505
1861 522,514 $3,505,511 4,028,021.
The increase in the trade vta the St. Lawrence in 1861,
as compared with the previous year, exceeds twelve inil-
liouB of dollars.
• Valuo of shipa built at Quebec included.
WSS^SB^^r^-
FREE P0KT8.
299
TRADE WITH THn UNITED STATES.
The reciprocity treaty, to which reference has already
been made, resulted benelicially to both countries, although
there is no doubt that much local ill-feeling has been en-
gendered in particular States, and at those lake ports which
have not been beneiited by the treaty to the extent antici-
pated, when the subject was under discussion, and whose
local trades have been materially influenced by the high
tariffs on certain articles recently imposed by the govern-
ment of Canada.
The following presents a comparative view of all the
imports and exports, to and from the United States and
Canada, from December 31, 1849, to January 1, 1861 :
EXPORTS AND IMPOUTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.
y
Imports
Excess of
Otherlinporta
Estimated excess of Imports
Imports
into tho
luiports
into
into Canada from tlicUnited
into
United
into
United
States
above Canadian Im-
rear.
Canada.
Sttites.
Canada.
States.*
ports
into tho U, States.
1850,
fti,694,8()0
$4,951,159
$1,64,3,701
$982,083
$001,618
1861,
8,3()5,7()5
4,071,644
4,294,221
845,8!J3
8,4.18,388
1862,
S,47V,6y.<5
6,284,.V21
2,193,172
1.261,682
941, MO
1853,
11,78'.M47
8,9iifi,«82
2,846,765
1,789,073
1,056,093
1864,
15,5;ti.(J<J7
8,049,002
0,884,095
1,769,880
5,114,216
1856,
20,S'28.67t5
1«.737,277
4.091,899
8,265,013
826,385
186U,
22.7()4,509
17,979, i6:J
4,724,766
2,238,900
2,485,85ft
185T,
20,'224,(i.")0
l.'5.2O0.4«5
7,018,214
1,550,205
5,462,009
1868,
16,0;!5,6(»6
11,930,094
8,706,471
1.443,044
2,202,42T
1859,
17,59'2,910
13,922,314
8,C70,C02
1,604,003
2,005,999
1800,
17,278,029
18,427,908
2,270,480
1,115,491
FREE PORTS.
In November, 1860, the harbor of Gaspo Basin, in tho
Gulf of St. Lawrence, was constituted a free port, where
goods, wares, and merchandise of every description may be
imported, either for consumption or exportation, without
customs duty. The harbor of Sault Ste. Marie, between
Lakes Superior and Huron, was also made a free port at
the saiTie period, the chief objects boing to encourage tho
fisheries in the one ease, and immigration in the other.
The imports at Gaspe, n,nd the out-ports within tho
limits of the " free port," were, in value, $286,558 hi 1860,
and $392,068 in 1861. The imports at Sault Ste. Mario
♦ Thcso amounts aro named, in the statistics published under tho sanction
of tho Canadiiin government^ ps returned not reported aXinland ports in Can-
ada, and it may be inferred wore chiefly sent to tho United States.
I I
i^ii
jk
300
REVENUE.
were valued at $54,421 in 1860, and at $92,704 in 1861,
Bliovving an increase over the imports of 1860, amounting
to $38,283.
CANADIAN TARIFFS.
The expenses of the government of the country are pro-
vided for chiefly by the tarilf on imported articles. Tlie
principal articles contributing to the revenue are enumer-
ated in the following table, with the different tariffs in the
years 1855 to 185G, inclusive :
Articles. 18M. 1856. 18{>7. 1858. 1859.
Molasses, percept 16 11 11 18 I ()
Sugar, refined, " 32 28 25 26^ 40
Sugar, other, " 27^ 20 17^ 21 30
Boots and shoes, • 12^ 14^ 20 21 25
Harness, " 12^ 17 20 21 25
Cotton goods, " 12i lU 15 15 20
Irongoo'ls, " 12i 18^ 15 16 20
S'lk goods, " 12^ 13i 15 :7 20
Wool goods, " 12^ 14 15 18 20
REVENUE.
The net revenue from customs during the past ten years
has been as follows : —
Year.
Net
rev. from Customs.
Year.
Net
rev. from Customs
1851,
$2,808,831
1857,
$3,59,:, 754
1852,
2,822,^31
1858,
3,020,294
18') 3,
3,940,393.
1859,
4,123,511
1854,
4,672,074
1860,
4,405,104
1855,
3,255,278
1861,
4,411,160
185G,
4,115,621
The amount paid yearly, by each individual of the
population of Canada, is one dollar and sixty c^nts, — as-
Butningthe population to be 2,506,755, and the calculation
to be made for the years 1857 to 1861, inclusive, on the
gross revenue from customs.
REVENUE OP 1861.
Ordinary $9,318,180
Seignorial indemnity..
Public worlts
Advances
Repayment sums due on open account.
Special funds ,
Redemption of the public debt
Rndomption Lake St. I'eter bonds
Total.
>«•••■•
224,000
9U6,000
218,000
520,000
751,000
. 55,738,000
65 000
$14,740,180
IMMIOKATION.
RECEIPTS.
Ordinary, including municipal loan fund
and railway interest $7,841,311
Investment realized and advances repaid. 1,116,000
Special funds 034,000
Debentures issued 2,764,000
$12,655,511
Deficiency 2,085,869
30J
CHAPTEK VII.
IMMIGRATION.
The largest number of immigrants arrived at the port of
Qucl)ec since 1829 has been 53,180. The following table
shows the annual immigration since 1850 to 1861, a period
of twelve years :
f '
Ills?
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OP
IMMIGRANTS
ARRIVED AT
TIIH POUT OF QUEBEC, SINCE TUE YEAR 1850
TO 18G1, INCLUSIVE.
Continent
Yciir.
England.
Ireland. Scotlfind.
YKurope.
Low er porls.
li-;50,
9,8!^7
17,976 2,879
849
701
1851,
9,6^;;
22,381 7,042
870
1,106
1852,
9,276
15,983 5,477
7,256
1,184
185:5,
9,585
14,417 4,745
7,456
496
1854,
18,175
16,165 6,446
11,537
857
1855,
6,754
4,106 4,859
4,864
691
1856,
10,:J53
1,688 2,794
7,343
261
1857,
15,171
2,015 3,218
11,368
24
18.-;8,
G,441
1,153 1,424
3,578
214=
1859,
4,346
417 793
2,722
• •
1860,
6,481
376 979
2,314
, 1
1861,
7,780
413 1,112
10,(.18
••
Total ar. ivals,
II II
between 1850 and 1861. .. .
. . . . 319.993
" 1829 " 1849....
632.675
/
• 962,068
The dispersion of tiiese immigrants tiirougli the country
is a matter of great moment, as vast number^ find their way
eventuall-"^ to tho Western States who come witli tlie in-
tention of settling in Canada, yet, on accouiu of neglect, or
the misrepresentations of agents, j're led to seek a borne •"'n
the south side of the international boundary.
.J
I
ill
lull
\
H
fill
d
ji
-tv *-f i •
t I,,
s i-:'
iU
302 IMMIGRATION.
Tlie following is an approximate statement of the arrival
and distribution of inmiigrants during 1861 : —
Lan led at Quebec 19,923
Arrived in Canada via the route of the United States :
By steamer to Portland, from January to April 330
" " " ' " November to ;nst December, 242
By route of Suspension Bridge, to Hamilton, 11,132; of
whom there remained in Canada 3,263
By steamer on Lake Ontario, from Rochester and Oswego, 353
" " from Oswego and Cape St. Vincent to Kingston, 350
By route of Lake Champlain, to Montreal 126
4,664
Total arrivals in Canada, 24,587
Of the arrivals at Quebec, thero proceeded to the United
States 10,700
Remaining in Canada, 13,887
Of this number there appear to have settled :
In Western Canada 9,500
In Ottawa District 1,544
In Eastern Canada 1,500
In Gaspo 400
Unknown, but presumed to have remained in Canada 943 — 13,887
Each immigrant on his arrival in the country is taxed one
dollar, which forms part of the funds under which the iinmi-
gratiou department is sustained.
The expenditure in 1861 amounted to $28,T73 ; the
items were as follows : —
For the Quarantine establishment at Grossc Isle $4,700 25
i'or immigration, in tho direct reUef and assistance to
destitute immigrants 8,920 19
Agency charges, salaries, rents, office and travelling
expenses 15,152 58
$28,773 02
Being an increase of $2,259 19 compared with that of 1860.
The total amount of tax realized during this season was
$19,112, making the surplus of expenditure over receipts
$9,661 — a paltry sum, when the amazing advantage to the
province of a continuous stream of immigration from conti-
nental Europe is taken into consideration, and the settle-
ment of the vast wilderness in the rear of the St. Law-
rence by industrious laborers and mechanics.
There are six government immigrant agencies in Canada,
FREE GRANTS OF LANDS, ETC. 303
located respectively at Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa City,
Kingson, Toronto, and Hamilton. The Imperial and Pro-
vincial Passengers' Acts provide as far as possible against
frauds and impositions being practised on the immigrant.
The Provincial Passengers' Act provides that immigrants
may remain on board forty-eight hours after the vessel's
arrival (except in cases when the vessel has a mail con-
tract), and that they shall be landed free of expense, at
proper hours ; that no person, without a license, shall influ-
ence passengers in favor of any particular steamboat, rail-
road, or tavern ; that tavern-keepers shall have posted, in
some conspicuous place, a list of prices to be charged for
board, lodging, &c.; and they will not be allowed to have
any lien upon the effects of a passenger, for board and
lodging, beyond five dollars. The total immigration from
Great Britain, from 1815 to 1858, has been as follows : —
Proportion.
To British American colonies 1,180,049 24.60
To United States 2,890,403 60.25
To Australian colonies , 652,.S53 13.60
To other places ' 74,361 1.55
4,797,166 100.00
FREE GRANTS OF LANDS AND COLONIZATION ROADS.
There are now seven million acres of crown lands sur-
veyed and open for sale, at prices varying from thirty cents
to one dollar per acre. Every purchaser must become an
actual settler. This enormous area of surveyed public
lands is distributed in the following manner :
Lower Canada 4,540,000
Urper Canada 2,400,000
Or, exhibiting more particularly the localities of these
public lands, there are in
Acres.
The Three Rivera district about 349,000
Kast of the Chaudiere to Gaspe " 1,310,000
Giispe and Bonaveuture " 348,000
Sauguenay district " 295,000
Eustem townships " 1,030,000
Ottawa region north of the river " 1,206,000
Between Ottawa River and Georgian Bay. . . " 1,740,000
West of French River and Lake Nipissing... " 160,000
■: j
I
f <^
304 FBEE GRANTS OF LAIRDS, ETC.
The capital required to enable an immigrant family to
Bcttle upon a free-grant lot, or enter upon the occupation
of wild land, should be such as would be sufficient for the
support of the family for eighteen months, until a return
from the land can be obtained.
The following is a careful estimate of the quantity and
cost of provisions required for twelve months, for a man md
liis wife and three young children, and also a list of arti-
cles required by settlers going into the bush. The prices
are attached at which they can be purchased at the villa-
ges near the settlements :*
.8 barrels of flour, at £1 15s. per barrel £14 0 0
2 " of pork, at £3 15. " T 10 0
80 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per bushel. .. . 8 0 0
30 lbs. of tea, at 2s. 6d. per lb 3 15 0
1 barrel of herring 2 0 0
i " of salt 1 6
Cost of Provisions £35 12 6
SEED,
20 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per bushel £2 0 0
3 " of wheat, at 73. 6d. " 1 2 6
10 " of oats, at 28. " 10 0
Cost of seed £4 2 6
OTHER NECESSARIES.
1 Axe £0 8 9
1 Grindstone 0 7 6
1 Shovel 0 110
2 Hoes, at 3s. Gs. each 0 7 0
3 Reaping-hooks, at Is. 6d. each 0 4 6
1 Scythe 0 5 0
1 Inch auger 0 5 0
1 Inch-and-a-half auger 0 7 6
1 Hand-saw 0 7 6
2 Watc- pails, at Is. 6d. each 0 3 0
1 "W indow-sash, and glazing 0 5 0
i Bake-oven 0 5 0
2 Pots, at 5s. each 0 10 0
1 Kettle 0 5 0
1 Fryiugpan 0 3 0
1 Teapot 0 2 6
6 Small tin vessels, at 4d each 0 2 0
3 large tiu dishes, at 28. 6d. each 0 7 6
* From Government Immigration Reports.
Wl
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GOVERNMKNT ROADS.
305
OTHER KECE8SARIES — contintied.
6 Spoons, at 2d. each 0 10
6 Knives and forks 0 5 0
3 Pairs of blankets, at £i. 5s. per pair 3 15 0
2 Iliij^s or quilts, at 2s. 6d. each 0 5 0
2 Pairs of sheets, at 3s. per pair 0 6 0
1 Smoothing iron ; 0 2 6
1 Pig 0 15 0
£10 1 1
Total £50 2 1
Add one Cow 5 00
Hay for ic, 1st year 3 00
Currency £58 2 1
Or, Sterling £-17 0 0
Tlie provincial government has recently opened seven
great lines of road in Upper Canada and five in Lower
Canada, and laid out for settlement the lands through
which these roads pass.
The roads in Upper Canada are styled : —
1st. The Ottawa and Opeongo Road. — ^This road runs
east and west, and will eventually be 171 miles in length,
and connect the Ottawa Piver with Lake Huron ; about 62
miles are now finished, and 235 settlers already located
thereon. Resident agent, T. P. Fkench, Clontarf, town-
ship of Sebastopol.
2d. Addington Road, running north and south, 61
miles long, and starting from the settlements in the county
of Addington, until it intersects the Opeongo Road; the
number of settlers on this road is 178. Resident agent,
E. Perry, Tamworth.
3d. The Hastings Road, running nearly parallel to the
Addington Road, 68 miles long, and connecting the county
of Hastings with the Ottawa and Opeongo Road : there
are 306 settlers on this road. Resident agent, M. P.
Hayes, village of Madoc.
4th. The Boucayoeon Road, running from Bobcaygeou,
between the counties of Peterborough and Victoria, north,
and intended to be continued to Lake Nipissing ; 36 miles
are already completed, and there are 168 settlers on the
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GOVERNMENT E0AD3,
line ; tliG nnnibcr in the family of each settler, on the above
roads, averages about four. Resident agent, R. Huoiies,
Bobcaygeon, and G. G. Boswell, Bobcaygeon North.
5th. The Fuontenao and Madawaska Road, of which
33 miles are completed. Resident agent, J. Spike, Ilar-
rowsmith,
Gth. Tin-: Muskoka Road, of which 21 miles are com-
pleted. This road runs from the head of the navigation of
Lake Couchiching to the- Grand Falls of Muskoka, where
it will intersect the road called Peterson's Line, which
will eventually meet the Ottawa and Opeongo Road, now
gradually opening westwardly ; and by it the intending
settler, arriving at Toronto, can, in one day's journey from
that city, reach the very centre of the country. Resident
agent, R. J. Oliver, Orillia.
7th. The Hault Ste. Marie Road, intended to run from
Sa\dt Ste. Marie to Goulais Bay, and of which 5 miles are
already completed.
The five roads in Lower Canada aro : —
The Elgix Road, in the county of L'Islet, about 35 miles
long, from St. Jean, Port Joli, to the pi'ovincial line.
Resident agent, S. Drapeau, St. Jean, Port Joli.
The MATA^fl•: and Cape Chat.
The Tache Road, from, Buckland, in the county of
Bcllechasse, to Metapedia Road, in Rimouski — about 200
miles.
The TKMrscoiTATA Road, from River du Loup lo Lake
Tcmiscouata; and The Metapedia Road, from Cabot to
Restigouchc.
In order to facilitate the settlement of these parts of
Canada, the government has authorized free grants of
land along these roads, not exceeding in each case 100
acres, and obtainable upon the following conditions:
1st. That the settler be eighteen years of age ; 2d.
That he take possession of the land allotted to him within
one month ; 3d. That he put into a state of cultivation
twelve acres of land in the course of four years ; 4th. That
GOVERKMENT EOADB.
307
he build a log-liouse, twenty by fourteen feet, and reside
on the lot until the foregoing conditions are fulfilled.
Families may reside on a single lot, and the several
members having land allotted to them, will be exempt
from building and residence upon each individual lot.
The non-fulfilment of these conditions will cause the im-
mediate loss of the land, which will be sold or given to
another. The lands thus opened up, and gratuitously
offered by the government for settlement, are chiefly of
excellent quality, and well adapted in resj^ect to soil and
climate, to all the purposes of husbandry.
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BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
A SKETCH OP THE NATURE, EXTENT AND VALUE CP THE METALS AND OTHKB
USEFUL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK,
AND BRITISH COLUMBIA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OP TUB PROGRESS
OP MINING INDUSTRY IN THESE PROVINCES.
BY CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER, MONTREAL.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
Canada is emphatically an agricultural country, and is
pre-eminently favored b}'^ nature in the excellence of its
soil, and the adaptation of its climate to the growth of wheat
and the other cereals, which must long continue as hereto-
fore to constitute its staple productions. Its natural resour-
ces, however, are by no means limited to the vegetable king-
dom ; and although, in the earlier stages of its history, the
products of its fields and forests naturally occupy the greatest
attention, and have received the fullest development, the
extent and importance of the mineral treasures with which
it abounds are now beginning to be duly recognized.
With the exception of coal, and a few of the less import-
ant metals, Canada has been found to produce almost all
the known useful minerals ; while, with regard to most of
them, it may be safely asserted that she contains within her-
self a supply not only amjjl}'^ suflicient for her domestic con-
sumption, but for permanent, profitable and extensive
foreign commerce. These boundless sources of wealth have
as yet been rendered available only to a very limited extent,
owing partly to the fact of their existence having been so
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BlUriSi'. ^nORTH AMERICA.
309
recently brought to light, and partly to the want of the
capital and skill requisite to develop them. As the resour-
ces of Canada are now rapidly becoming known to the rest
of the world, and as it is gradually hiarning greater self-
reliance, it may be reasonal)ly exprctod that its mineral
productions are destined to assume their due rank in con-
tributing to the national wealth and prosperity. In relation
to this department of the contribution made by Canada to
the Great Exhibition of 1851 at London, the following judg-
ment was pronouT;ced by the jury : " Of all the British colo-
nies, Canada is that whose exhibition is the most interesting
and complete, and one may even say that it is superior, as
for as the nimeral kingdom is concerned, to all countries tliat
have forwarded their productions to the Exhibition." This
judgment will doubtless be more than confirmed by the
results of the Great International Exhibition of 1862, to
which Canada has contributed a collection of minerals far
in advance of that of 1851.
We have stated that coal does not occur in Canada, and
we fear it must be regarded as a fully established fact, at.
least in regard to those parts of the country which have as
yet been settled and explored. The rocks are throughout
of a lower geological horizon than the carboniferous; and
althcugh bituminous schists and shales abound, and thin
veins of a substance closely resembling coal occur in cer
tain parts of the country, these can not be regarded as of
mac!', economic inij/ortance. Canada is, however, xovy
favorably situated in its })roximity, at all points, to the car-
boniferous regions of the United States and Nova Scotin,
and in the facility of conveyance afforded by its vast lakes,
rivers and canals; and moreover, it contains within itself
such ample supplies of wood, peat and mineral oil as will go
far to compensate for the want of coal.
Many useful minerals yielded in abundance by Canada,
and which require peculiar chemical treatment to render
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310 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BKITISII NORTH AMERICA.
them available in the arts, such as chromic iron, phosphate
of lime, petroleum, &c., are rendered comparatively value-
less from the fact, that in present circumstances, the crude
material has to be transported at great expense to distant
manufacturing centres. Sucii materials are peculiarly de-
serving of the attention of enterprising capitalists, as their
manufacture in the province would be attended with the
double advantage of rendering them available as a source of
national wealth as well as individual profit, and of giving
employment to an industrious and intelligent class of
population.
The knowledge we possess of the mineral wealth of Cana-
da, imperfect as it necessarily is, from the vast extent of
unexplored and partially explored territory, as well as from
the recent date at which public attention began to be di-
rected to the subject, is nevertheless sufficiently accurate to
admit of a certain classification and arrangement, and the
geographical distribution of the various useful minerals has
been ascertained with considerable accuracy. For much or
nearly all of this knowledge we are indebted to Sir Wil-
liam Logan, the Provincial Geologist, and his coadjutors,
who have devoted themselves assiduously, (under the liberal
patronage of the Provincial Government,) during nearly
twenty years to the investigation of the Geology of Cana-
da; and whose labors have not only conferred incalculable
benefit on the country, but procured for themselves a world-
wide re|)Utiition. In order to illustrate our remarks upon
the mineral productions of Canada, we shall give a slight
sketch of the geological structui'e of the country as ascer-
tained by the provincial geologists.
aEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF CANADA IN RELATION TO ITS USEFUL
MINERALS.
The oldest geological formation in Canada, styled by Sir
William Logan the Laurentian system, occupies all the
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MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 311
northern and portions of the central divisions of the pro*
vince, extending over an area of about 150,000 square
miles, and composed of various hard rocks, such as gneiss
and white crystaline limestone ; the total thickness of this
formation in Canada is probably not less than 20,000 feet.
These rocks consist of highly altered strata, in which no
positive and unequivocal traces of organic life have been
as yet detected; and which have been bent, twisted and
tilted up at all angles, and in some j.laces invaded by
masses of intrusive rock. Among the useful minerals
peculiarly characteristic of this formation, the ores of iron
are the most important, being found in interstratified layers
or beds in quantities which may be regarded as inexhausti-
ble and of exceedingly rich quality. Veins of lead and
copper also, cutting the stratification, occur in the formation,
especially at or near its junction with the next succeeding
system of rocks; plumbago and mica abound, and phos-
l^hate of lime and sulphate of bary tes are of frequent occur-
rence. The Laurentian limestones furnish marbles of very
excellent quality, together with a great variety of materials
applicable to ornamental purposes.
The Huronian system, the next in ascending ovder, is
wanting in the eastern and central parts of Canada, but at-
tains a great development on the northern shores of Lake
Huron and parts of Lake Superior; occupying a linear ex-
tent of about 400 miles, and consisting of slates, altered
sandstones, limestones and conglomerates, associated with
heavy masses and dykes of trap ; the total thickness is esti-
mated at about 18,000 feet. This system constitutes what
has been called the lower copper-bearing rocks of the lake
region ; the ore occuning sometimes disseminated among the
slates, but more frequently in quartz veins intersecting
them. These deposits of copper ore have formed, for many
years back, the object of mining operations ; and there can
be no doubt that this region contains metallic treasures
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312
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BIUTISH NORTH AMERICA.
which will one day become the source of great wealth to
Canada. In addition to copper, silver and nickel occur
in this formation in quantities which promise to be of econ-
omic importance. Agates, jasper and other varieties of pre-
cious stones are of frequent occurrence, and the jasper con-
glomerate, which abounds in this region, affords a beautiful
material, which will be found applicable to many purposes
of decorative construction.
The upper copper-bearing rocks, including the well-
known rich deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior,
have recently been discovered to have their equivalents in
what has been denominated the Quebec Group, in the
eastern part of the province ; consisting of altered and highly
dislocated and disturbed limestone and sandstone strata,
belonging to the inferior part of the Lower Silurian system,
and extending in a belt varying from twenty to sixty miles
wide, from the borders of Lake Champlain eastward to
nearly the extreme point of Gasp6. This important region,
which occupies an area of over 15,000 square miles, is a
portion of the great metalliferous formation of North Ameri-
ca, which includes the well-known mining regions of the
Appalachian chain from Canada to Tennessee, as well as
those of Missouri and the Lake Superior region. Although
this fact has but recently been recognized, many valuable
discoveries of copper and other metals have already been
made in the eastern townships of Co,nada, and at other points
comprised within the region specified. In addition to the
metals, it abounds in roofing slates of excellent quality,
besides many beautiful varieties of serpentine, marble, soap-
stone, whetstones, ochres, &e.
The central portion of the province, comprising the re-
gion bordering on the north shore of Lake Ontnrio, and ex
tending over an area of about 7,000 square miles, is under
laid by rocks of the Lower Silurian age, which are com-
paratively unaltered, both as regards position and chemical
MINERAL HESOUIICKS CF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 313
composition. They are for the most part hidden under thick
deposits of drift clay, and have hitherto produced no im-
portant discoveries of the metals ; but it is worthy of re-
mark that it is in limestone rocks of corresponding age and
condition that the extensive deposits of lead in Wisconsin
and Iowa occur. The limestones of this region, besides con-
tributing materially to its agricultural value, furnish excel-
lent building and paving materials ; and in many places beds
of hydraulic limestone are found, and a superior description
of lithographic stone maybe obtained in unlimited quantity.
The rocks of the western peninsula are of Upper Silurian
and Devonian age ; and furnish, by their decomposi'^ion, the
materials for the rich and fertile soils by which this part of
the province is distinguished, and rendered so invaUuible
for agricultural purposes. The most important mineral pro-
ducts of the rocks of this region are gypsum, hydraulic lime
and petroleum.
The superficial deposits, all over the country, furnish
abundant materials for the manufacture of bricks, tiles and
every description of coarse pottery. Shellmarls occur in
many places, and constitute a valuable manure. Bog iron
ore is also found in great quantities, and at several points
has been made available in the manufacture of iion of an
excellent quality. Beds of ochre exist in many localities,
and considerable areas in the eastern part of the province
are covered by marshes yielding abundance of peat, which
must in time become most valuable for fuel.
CATALOGUE OF U8EFCL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA.
It will be impossible, within the limits prescribed to us,
to give more than a general and cursory account of the useful
minerals of Canada ; and with respect to many of them we
must confine ourselves to a bare enumeration. As the basis
of our remarks, we shall adopt the classification given by
Sir William Logan ; reproducing, in an abridged form, the
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MINERAL BESOURCBS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
index to the elaborate and valuable " Descriptive CaMlogues
of the Eco:iomic Minerals of Canada^'' prepared by him for
the Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862; and omitting such
as are either common to most other countries, or of limited
application in the arts, together with such as appear to be
of rare occurrence in Canada. We shall then enter upon a
more particular account of such as are of special interest or
importance, giving such details as may serve to elucidate
their nature, mode of occurrence and value, and the extent
to which they have been developed.
METALS AND THEIR ORES.
Iron. Magnetic, specular, bog and titaniferous.
Zinc and Lead. Sulphurets, (blende and galena.)
Copper. Native, pyritous, variegated and vitreous sulphurets.
Nickel and Cobalt. Sulphurets.
Silver. Native, and associated with galena and copper ore.
Gold. Native ; in superficial deposits and in veins.
MINERALS APPLICABLE TO CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
Chromium. In chromic iron ore, for forming chromate of
potash, &c.
Manganese. In iron ore, and as earthy peroxide, for bleach-
ing and decolorizing agents.
Iron Pyrites. For manufacture of copperas and sulphur
MINERAL FAINTS.
Iron Ochres. All varieties of color ; very abundant.
Sulphg.te of Baryta. For manufacture of permanent white,
&c.
Steatite. Soapstone, used both as a paint and a refractory
stone.
MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO THE ARTS.
Liihoaraphic Stone, Mica, Moulding Sand, Fuller^ s Earth
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH KOBTH AMERICA.
315
MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO JEWELRT.
Agates, Jasper, Labradonte, Sunstone, Hyacinth, Oriental
Rubies, Sapphires^ Amethysts^ Ribboned Chert, (for
cameos,) Jet.
MATERIALS FOR GLASS MAKING.
White Quartzose Sandstone, Pitchstone, Basalt^ &c.
REFRACTORY MATERIALS.
Soapstone, Pipestone, Asbestos, /Sandstone, Plumbago, Fire-clay.
MINERAL MANURES.
Phosphate of Lime, Gypsum, Shellmarl.
GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIAL.
Millstones, Grindstones, Whetstones.
MATERIALS FOR COMMON AND DECORATIVE CONSTRUCTION.
Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, Hydraulic Limestone, Roofing
Slates, Flagstones, Marbles, (iu great variety of colors,)
Serpentines, Clays for brick and iih making and coarse
pottery.
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS.
Peat, Petroleum, and Asphalt.
In the notices which we shall proceed to give of the pro-
gress of development of the various minerals under their
respective heads, it is to be understood that the date to which
this account is brought up is the early part of the year 1862.
IRON ORES.
The iron ores of Canada, with the exception of the bog
ores, which are distributed over many parts of the province,
are chiefly found associated, as we before remarked, with the
Laurentian rocks, in which they occur in prodigious quan-
tities, and generally in beds lyins: conformably with the
%>ih\ <
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316
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
stratification. Most of these beds are of very great extent
and thickness, and of excel'ent quality, yielding sixty to
seventy per cent, of pure iron ; and although the want of
mineral fuel operates as a very serious obstacle to the de-
velopment of this branch of industry, they have been par-
tiallv worked in a few places.
Ac the Hull mine, situated about five miles above Ottawa
City, the bed is about 90 feet in thickness, containing be-
tween 60 and 70 per cent, of metallic iron, and is of vast
though unknown extent. At the lowest estimate this de-
posit is calculated to contain not less than 250,000,000 tons
of iron.
The Crosby mine, situated on the Rideau canal, is on a
bed 200 feet thick, and its yield over the same extent of
ground would amount to double that above-mentioned ; a
quantity which, at the present rate of production, would
afford employment for the whole mining force of Great
Britain' and the United States for a century.
In the township of Marmora, where iron works have
been estnblished and smelting done to a limited extent,
the beds are in the aggregate about 150 feet in thickness,
and by the same method of computation may be estimated
to contain 100,000,000 tons ; and at two other known loca-
tions which have been partially opened up, the probable
contents may amount to 150,000,000 tons; thus making,
for the five localities specified, an aggregate of 1,000,000,-
000 tons. A'^ast quantities of iron ore have recently been
discovered in the neighborhood of Lake Nipissing, and it
is certain that as the whole region overlaid by the Lauren-
tian rocks becomes settled, many additional localities of the
material will be discovered. It is thus evident that the
supply of iron ore in Canada may be regarded as practically
inexhaustible.
As regards the quality of the ore, and natural fixcilities
for working and transportation, these are unsurpassed by
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
317
any country in the world. The ore consists chiefly, in the
locaHties referred to, of the magnetic oxide of iron, wliich
is the same species, and occurring in the same geological
formation, with those of Sweden and Norway, from which
the celebrated Swedish Iron is made. There is therefore
every reason to believe that if treated in a similar way, it
will produce an equally good material for the manufacture
of steel and the finer descriptions of iron work. The ore-beds
occurring immediately at the surface can be wrought with
comparatively little labor, and many of the most promising
are situated near the banks of navigable rivers and canals.
The extensive scale on which iron smelting works must
necessarily be conducted, and the large capital involved,
together with the want of mineral fuel and expense of
labor, have hitherto operated as obstructions to the develop-
ment of this branch of industry in Canada ; while the low
price of iron imported from the mother country renders
it doubtful whether, in present circumstances, it would re-
pay the cost of manufacturing. It is, however, in the
highest degree satisfactory to know that this country pos-
sesses within itself such vast stores of a material indispensa-
ble to the comfort and progress of mankind, and which can
be made available when circumstances render its ajpplica-
tion expedient or necessary.
It is a remarkable and somewhat anomalous fact, how-
ever, that in the British provinces in North America, iron
smelting and some other branches of industry, received a
larger share of attention half a century ago than they do at
the present day. This is probably to be accounted for from
the application of the modern system of division of labor,
which tends to restrict the industry of countries, as well as
individuals, to those branches only which are supposed to
form their staple productions, or to which nature and custom
are conceived to have best adapted them.
Several years ago iron works were established, and smelt-
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MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
ing carried on for some time, on the rich magnetic oxides
in the townships of Marmora and Madoc in the county of
Hastings ; the produce was a very superior quality of man-
ufactured iron ; but owing chiefly to the want of roads, dis-
tance from markets, &c., they have been found unprofitable,
and abandoned in the meantime. We have no statistics of
the production of these works. Of late years a trade has
sprung up, to a limited extent, in the exportation of the
iron ores of Hull and Crosby to the smelting establishments
of Pittsburgh, Penn. ; which can be done with profit when
taken as return freight by the vessels carrying the agricul-
tural products of the West down the St. Lawrence. The ore
is worth from $5 to .$6 per ton at the furnaces, and can be
put on board at Kingston for $2.25. From the Hull mine
about 8,000 tons have been thus forwarded since 1855, and
from that of South Crosby, which is more conveniently
situated as regards proximity to the shipping port, the ex-
ports up to the year 1860 are stated at 6,000 tons.
Besides the magnetic oxides, specular iron ore abounds
in many localities in Canada, both in the Laurentian and
Lower Silurian groups of rocks, and red hematite or car-
bonate of iron is also of not unfrequent occurrence. About
fifty years ago, these descriptions of ores were mined for
smelting purposes in the neighborhood of Furnace Falls in
Landsdowne, but the works being found unprofitable at the
time, were abandoned. Red hematite was formerly quar-
ried in the township of Brome, Canada East, of such
superior quality as to be found worthy of transportation a
distance of about 180 miles to be smelted. A great extent
of rich hematite has recently been discovered upon one
of the islands in Lake Nipissing.
Titaniferous iron ore is very abundant in Lower Canada,
chiefly in the Eastern townships and at Bay St. Paul, but
it is doubtful whether it can be rendered available for
the manufacture of iron, owing to the presence of the
MINERAL RESOUECE8 OF BRmSH NORTH AMERICA. 319
titanium which is difficult to separate, but which prol/ably
may in the progress of the arts become itself a valuable
product. The deposit at Lay St. Paul, which is ninety
feet thick, and is traceable for about a mile, contains
4:8.60 of oxide of titanium.
The bog iron ores, which are found so extensively dif-
fused throughout Canada, have been in a few instances the
object of manufacturing industry. These ores occur in
patches from three to twenty -four inches thick, on the sur-
face, generally in the neighborhood of swampy lands, and
consist of hydrated oxide of iron combined with an acid de-
rived from vegetable decomposition ; their yield of metallic
iron is usually from forty to iifty per cent. The St. Maurice
forges at Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, which have
been in operation for upwards of a century, employ ex-
clusively this description of ore, which is found in great
abundance in the immediate neighborhood ; and have pro-
duced largely both of cast and wrought iron of a very
superior quality. This establishment, which at one time
employed from 250 to 300 hands, is now discontinued ;
but the business is carried on vigorously at the Radnor
forgrs in Batiscan, where the .ore and fuel are abundant.
Tlie chief manufacture here consists of cast-iron car-
wheels; and recently a rolling mill has been erected,
which produces railroad and other descriptions of fine iron.
The quantity of ore annually used at these works is be-
tween 4,000 and 5,000 tons, producing about 2,000 tons of
pig iron ; and the number of workmen varies from 200 to
400.
In Upper Canada, v.i iron smelting work, in which the
bog ores were employed, was erected and carried on for
sometime in the county of Norfolk, on the shore of Lake
Erie, but is now abandoned, and no statistics of the pro-
duction of this work have, so far as we are aware, been
preserved. The excellent quality of the iron produced
from the bog ores of Canada is remarkable, inasmuch as
these invariably contain a notable quantity of phosphorus,
.ijiiii***''-
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mi
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J
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320 MINERAL RE80CRCE8 OF BRITIBH NORTH AMERICA.
which is generally, although, as it appears, erroneously,
supposed to be highly prejudicial to the iron.
ZINC AND LEAD.
Hitherto no available deposits of zinc ore have been
discovered in Canada, although this metal is known to
exir^t at many places, and may yet become of economic
importance. Blende, or the sulphuret of zinc, is found
associated \vith copper in considerable proportion at Pointe
aux Mines, on Lake Supenor, and it is also fouiu:l wich
galena at several points in the eastern townships. Deposits
of zinc ores must be large and favorably situated in order
to be worked with profit, and the sulphuret is not the
most valuable ore ; its occurrence in Canada, therefore, can
only be regarded as important in so far as it may lead, as
in other countries, to the discovery of the more useful ore,
calamine.
The officers of the geological survey have reported the
occurrence of galena, in many localities in Canada.
The most important is that now known as the Ham say
lead mine, in the county of Lanark, 0. W. Here the
rock intersected by the vein, which is of calc-spar, is an
arenaceous limestone, or dolomite, belonging to that di-
vision of the lower Silurian series known in New York
State and in Canada as the calciferous sand-rock. Mining
operations have been prosecuted with some success, and
have established beyond a doubt the important facts,
that the ore exists in true veins, which may be depended
upon for persistence in depth, and that its quality is most
excellent, producing eighty per cent, of metallic lead. Up-
wards of thirty tons of ore of this produce have been ob-
tained, and smelting works have been erected to reduce
the ore ; but the enterprise has languished from want of
sufiicient capital to carry on the work efiiciently. It is
expected that in the course of the present season (18G2),
these mines will be worked by a powerful company, and
with good prospects of success. At other locations iu tho
I —
MINEBAX, KE801TRCEB OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 321
Bame district of country, as in the townships of Bedford
and Lansdowne, other veins have been discovered, hold-
ing a nearly uniform course, and which appear to be con-
nected with the well-known lead lo les of Hossie, in St.
Lawrence county, New York. Trial shafts have been
sunk on many of these veins, and with good prospects of
a successful result.
Galena is known to exist at several points in the
Quebec group of rocks, stretching from Lake Cham]>lain
to Gaspe ; but it is as yet uncertain whether it occurs at
any place in sufficient quantity to be remunerative. At
Lidian Cove, in Gaspe, a lead vein has been partially
explored, and has yielded about six tons of sixty per cent.
ore.
Gale la has also been found in occasional bunches in the
Niagara limestone rocks, skirting the head of Lake Onta-
rio, and various attempts have been made to explore and
work them ; but no vein of any considerable importance
has yet been discovered here.
COPPER.
This valuable metal undoubtedly constitutes the most
important of the mineral treasures of Canada, and is des-
tined to occupy a prominent rank among the resources of
the country. The ores of copper are found to be dis-
tributed abundantly over large tracts of country in the
western and eastern extremities of the province, their
existence having been known in the former case for nearly
two centuries, while in the latter, notwitiistandii\g its
being a much more populous and accessible region, it has
only been brought to light within the last few years. The
Laurentian rocks have not hitherto been found to yiel ?
any great deposits of copper ore, although veins of the
sulphurets have been traced in this formation which may
lead to more important discoveries.
Copper mining in, the lake region. In the western part
of the province, the Iluronian rocks, occupying the whole
I i* k
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Sh-:M
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322 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
northern flank of Lake Huron, and parts of Lake Superior,
are traversed by numerous and powerful cupriferous veins,
which have formed the object of mining enterprise for many
years. The attention of travellers was attracted to the rich
copper ores of this region as far back as the middle of the
seventeenth century ; and in 1770 a company was actu-
ally formed by some enterprising Englishmen to work
copper mines on the north shores of Lake Superior ; but
owing to the remoteness and inaccessible nature of the coun-
try, it was found impracticable to continue operations for any
lengthened period. In 184:5, when the excitement conse-
quent upon the great discoveries of copper on the south
shore of Lake Superior was at its height, similar mining
sJiemes were instituted on the Canadian side, and com-*
panics were formed in Montreal, Quebec, and various
other Canadian cities, who with praiseworthy zeal, though
questionable discretion, sent armies of explorers and
miners into the field, equipped in the most extravagant
style, and who certainly obtained abundance of ore, but
at a cost greatly above its value. The consequence of
these rash and imprudent proceedings was that most of
the companies speedily abandoned their operations, after
the irretrievable loss of large sums of money ; and witli
those wlio have continued in the business till the present
time, the debts thus incurred have proved a severe drag
upon their subsequent more cautious proceedings. The
Montreal Mining Company have prosecuted their works
till this ti nu?, and with tolerable success, at the Bruce Mine,
located on the shores of Lake Huron, where a group of cop-
per-bearing quartz lodes are found intersecting greenstone
rocks. On a careful examination instituted by Sir Wm.
Logan, in 1848, it was found that about 3,000 square fathoms
of the lodes would contain six and a half per cer.t. of cop-
per. The average annual produce of this mine during the
fourteen years of its existence has been about 700 tons, of
18 to 20 per cent. The deepest working is 60 fathoms
from the surface ; the mine employs about 84 hands.
lH:.
■mi
w^ii«»«j»v».»=-v HI a-;»'i
MINERAL KES0UBCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 323
About four years ago the Montreal Mining Company
leased one of their locations, the " Wellington Mine," to
a private English company, who have worked it with great
vigor and success. The lodes here are apparently con-
tinuations of those found on the Bruce location, and are
extremely powerful and productive. The quantity of ore
obtained at this mine since 1857 is about 6.000 tons of
twenty per cent., and it is said to yield twenty-five per
cent, on the capital invested. The same company have
alsD recently opened on an adjoining location, which is
owned by the Huron Copper Bay Company, and have
discovered very valuable deposits ; this mine being reported
to have yielded during 1861 not less than 1,300 tons of
twenty per cent. ore. The number of men on the Wel-
lington and Copper Bay Mines is supposed to be about
265. All the ore raised by this company is sent to Britain.
Smelting works have been established in connection with
the Bruce Mines, the coal being supplied at a nominal
rate of freight by the vessels which are sent to carry the
produce of the south shore mines. These works have
not hitherto been brought into successful operation, but if
skilfully and economically conducted, they cannot fail to
be of great advantage to the mining interests of this
region. The aggregate produce of the three Lake Huron
copper mines for 1861 is about 3,000 tons, worth about
$250,000, a considerable addition to the exports of the
country from one small port, but a mere fraction of what
might be done, should the government provide efficient
steam communication with the upper lakes.
The ores of the Lake Huron copper region are entirely
Bulphurets, yellow, variegated, and vitreous — no native
copper being found. This form of the metal is, however,
found in considerable quantity at Maimanse, Michipicoten
island, and various other points on the north shore of Lake
Superior ; and it is quite possible that these regions iwy
ultimately prove as favorable for the production of copper
as the far-famed " south shore."
21
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32i: MINERAL EES0URCE8 OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA.
Copper mining in Canada East. We have already re-
marked that the rocks of the Lake Superior mining region
have their geological equivalents in the Quebec group in
Lower Canada, and accordingly we find them character-
ized by similar features as regards their metallic contents.
It is only within the last ten years that the existence of
copper ores has been recognized in the eastern part of the
province, and the discovery of their economic importance
is of still more recent date. So far as hitherto observed,
the deposits occur most abundantly, and in greatest rich-
ness, in the highly altered and disturbed strata constituting
the mountainous and picturesque region of the eastern
townships, extending from the province line, near the head
of Lake Champlain, in a north-easterly direction as far as
Quebec, and occupying a breadth of forty-nve or fifty
miles. They occur chiefly in beds subordinate to the
stratification of the chloritic and micaceous slates, and asso-
ciated dolomitic limestones of the metamorphic lower Si-
lurian age, which are tilted to a high angle; and the most
valuable deposits are found where these strata appear to
have been fissured or otherwise disturbed, and the openings
subsequently filled with ore. In some cases, also, veins,
occur cutting the stratification at small angles, and these
give promise of being permanently reliable mines. The
ores are generally of an unusually rich character, and are
found in such variety as, by their mixture, to give great fa-
cilities for smelting.
During the last two years (1860 and 1861), much activ-
ity has prevailed in prosecuting the search for valuable
minerals in the region in question, chiefly by individual
enterprise or by Fmall companies. Surface explorations
have been made over a very largo tract of country, and in
several instances actual mining operations have been com-
menced, and the results so i'ar have proved highly encour-
aging. Deposits of the sulphnrets of copper, more or less
promising, have been found to exist on upwards of 150
distinct \oU, in various townships. On nine or ten loca-
MmERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISir NORTH AMERICA. 325
tions, at great distances apart, trial shafts have been sunk
to a considerable depth, and in as many instances large
sums have been expended in costeening and trenching; and
in almost p.ll cases the deposits, when traced in depth,
have been found to improve in all the qualities requisite
for permanent and profitable mining. All that seems
wanting in order to establish the character of this promis-
ing mining region is the expenditure, at varioils well se-
lected points, of a moderate capital judiciously and eco-
nomically applied. These mines are very well situated as
regards transportation of the ores to market, the whole
district being traversed by railways, and at no point very
distant from water conveyance.
The only copper mines in Lower Canada which have as
yet produced much ore for the market are the Acton and
Harvey Hill mines. At Acton, in Bagot county, the ore,
which is associated with a dolomitic limestone, in conse-
quence apparently of complicated dislocations of the strata,
occurs at the surface, in a series of bunches of exceeding
richness, which have now for che most part been extracted
by open quarrying ; but on tracing this ore in depth, the
bunches appear to be connected with regular veins which
afford promise of being permanently productive, although
by a different and more satisfactory mode of working. In
the absence of full official returns, it may be safely esti-
mated that the Acton mine has, up to the close of the year
1861, produced not less than 6,000 tons of ore, averaging
seventeen per cent, produce, and worth about $100,000, at
a cost probably about one-sixth of that sum.* This mine
gave employment in 1861 to between 500 and 600 hands ;
and although its character as a good mine for permanent
* Since writing the above, it has been ascertained tliat the total value of
ore obtained at the Acton Mine, within tliree years after it was opened, was
$•190,000. " It is believed that the history of mining in America aCTords no
parallel to this. In the majority of cases where copper mines have proved
ultimately profltable, it is only after the consumption of much time and the
investment of a largo amount of capital that any returns have been realized."
— Dr. jMlcson^s Report on the Acton Mine, 18G2.
h' I
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32 G MENEKAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
.iiid profitable working has been seriously injured by an
im*nrl5f>''ous system of development, it is certain that the
o^(^ ' ill very far from being exhausted.
At the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds (the property of the
English and Canadian Mining Co.), the works have been
])ro8ecuted during the past three years with much skill and
vigor, in opposition to many and formidable difficulties,
which seem at length likely to be crowned with merited suc-
cess. The ore, which consists of the pyri tons, variegated, and
vitreous varieties, here occurs both in rich bunches in a series
of quartz courses of considerable though limited extent,
cutting the stratification at small angles, and in a more
diffused state in beds or bands coinciding therewith ; and is
attacked and extracted by regular and systematic under-
ground operations. The principal adit, when complete,
will cut all the courses at a depth of thirty-seven fathoms
from the summit of the hill, and will be 250 fathoms in
length. In order to save expense in transportation to
market, the ore is concentrated by dressing to thirty-five
per cent, or upwards. In opening up this mine, from
§80,000 to $100,000 have already been expended, and
during the past year it lias produced about 130 tons of
thirty-five per cent, ore, worth about $18,000, and the to-
tal produce from the commencement may be estimated at
about $60,000.* The number of men employed is about
sixty ; the, produce of this mine is all sent to England.
An experiment is now in process of trial at the Harvey
Hill mine for concentrating the poorer ores from the beds,
&c., by Henderson's patent process, which, if successful,
as there is every probability it will be, will add greatly to
the value of this, as well as all other copper mining prop-
erty in Canada.
The Ascot Mine, near Sherbrooke, opened in the fall of
* From a return made by Mr. Williams, at the close of the year 18G2, wo
find that the total quantity of ore shipped to England was 322 tons of 35 per
cent., besides about 2000 tons of poorer ore averaging 3^ per cent, then on
the ground.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 327
1801, has in five months produced about 100 tons of eight
or nine per cent, ore, with very little cost for working.
This mine has been opened on a twist in the stratification
of the chloritic and slaty limestone of the country, whicli
appears to have folded the copper-bearing bed upon itself,
g;iving three courses of ore in the breadth of eighty feet.
The ore-bearing bed, which is at one place about eight feet
thick, carries the yellow sulphui'et of copper disseminated
throughout the mass, and is simply brokem up and l^arrelled
for market without any special dressing. The total depth
reached is about seven fathoms, and the beds seem to in-
crease in richness as they are traced in depth. The rock
is mined with unusual facility; the ore has hitherto been
sent chiefly to the Boston sinelting works, where it is much
prized for its valuable fluxing qualities.
At other mining locations in the townships of Sutton,
Melbourne, Durham, Wickham, and Upton, and in the
Seignory of Lotbiniere, some progress has been made in
the extraction of ore, the total value of which may be esti-
mated at $8,000 ; but these operations must be regarded
as only preliminary, this branch of industry being as yet
quite in its infancy ; and it is a highly gratifying feature
in these mines, that the ore incidentally obtained in test-
ing them frequently sufiices to defray the expense.
As regards the comparative advantages of mining in
Canada and in England, we have to remark, that although
at present the expenses both of labor and transportation
are considerably greater in Canada, tliese evils may be ex-
pected to cure themselves as soon as mining becomes an
" institution" among us — the first by the immigration of
Cornish hands, and the latter by the erection of smelting
furnaces, or other means of concentrating the ores, at or near
the mines, or at the nearest coal country in British North
America, — Nova Scotia, — which must in time occupy the
same position with regard to the mining region of Lower
Canada that South Wales holds with respect to Cornwall.
As an an- pie set-off to these present disadvantages, we may
I
¥1
328 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMKRIOA.
mention tlie greatly superior richness of the ores in Canada,
their greater proximity to the surface, dispensing with
much costly machinery for pumping, &c., and abundance
of wood for timbering and for fuel.
Tlie mining adventurers in some instances purchase
the land with the minerals, but in general the mode of
tenure is by lease of the minerals only for a considerable
term of years, with payment of a royalty. The extraor-
dinary success of the Acton Mines, and the excitement
consequent upon the novelty of the discoveries, at first
rendered the proprietors <!Xorbitant in their demands — a
per-centage of one-tenth of the gross proceeds, and in
some instances a bonus besides, being required before
granting a lease. As, however, it became apparent that
the Acton deposits were altogether of an exceptional cliar-
acter, and that the risk and expense of proving locations
and of underground working will not admit of any such
terms, there is a general disposition on the part of the
proprietors to encourage mining adventurers as well as
benefit themselves by exacting only moderate royalties.
It is the duty of government also, and of all public
companies interested in these lands, to foster and encour-
age this new branch of industry by assisting in the con-
struction of roads, by low tariffs on railways, and by all
other means in their power.
NICKEL AND COBALT.
Nickel has been found in several localities in Canada,
in rocks of the Laurentian, Iluronian, and Lower Silu-
rian ages, but it is as yet doubtful if it exist at any one
place in quantities which w^ould be remunerative in work-
ing. The most remarkable instance of its occurrence is in
the island of Michipicoten in Lake Superior, where it
exists in the forms of the arseniurets and silicates of nickel,
associated with copper, silver, and traces of cobalt, and
yielding from seventeen to thirty-seven per cent, of nickel.
It is reported that considerable quantities of this ore were
MINERAL KE80UKCES OF BKITISn NORTH AMERICA. 329
thrown into the hike after being stamped and washed
for the native silver, the workmen being ignorant of ita
value. This metal has also been found in considoi-uble
abundance at the Wallace Mine, on Lake Huron, as
an arsenical sulphuret, associated with iron pyrites; the
ore here yields thirteen per cent, of nickel, with a little
cobalt.
At Brompton Lake, in the Eastern township, nickel has
been found in the form of Millerite, or needle-nickel,
exhibiting beautiful slender elongated prisms, associated
with calc-spar and chrome garnets — specimens of the rock
yielding to analysis as much as one per cent, of nickel,
which, according to the modern systems of separating,
might pay for working. Traces of cobalt are found in
many places in Canada, but not in sufficient quantity to
be of much economic importance ; at one locality, how-
ever, in Elizabeth town, near Brock . ille, a great bed of
cobaltiferous pyrites occurs ; the ore yielding to assays one-
half per cent, of cobalt, which, according to the modern
systems of working, would yield a profitable result. The
presence of nickel and cobalt has been recognized in rocks
in Canada, which in the neighboring State of New York,
and in similar conditions, have yielded these valuable
metals in considerable abundance.
SILVER.
Native silver is found with the native copper in Michi-
picoten, St. Ignace, and Spar Islands, in Lake Superior;
also at the latter location it is found as a sulphuret, asso-
ciated with sulplmrets of iron, copper, lead, and zinc, in
a thick vein of calc-spar, barytes, and quartz. An assay
of a sample of several hundred pounds of the vein yielded
about four per cent, of silver, with traces of gold.
Most of the galena found in Canada is exceedingly
poor in silver, but specimens from Maimanse, and other
points on Lake Superior, have yielded thirty ounces to the
ton of metallic lead, and other ores from the Chaudiere,
I Hi
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f\
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330 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
and from a vein near Sherbrooke, in Lower Canada, con-
tain respectively twenty-live ounces and sixty ounces of
silver per ton of lead. In all these cases, however, so far
as yet ascertained, the galena is diffused through such
masses of rock as to make it questionable if it would pay-
to separate the silver.
GOLD.
Discoveries of gold have been made at several localities,
and in fair quantity in Eastern Canada ; chiefly in the val-
leys of the rivers Chaudiere and Du Loup, and their tribu-
taries, and on the St. Francis, all in the eastern townships.
In all cases it has been obtained by a laborious process of
washing or stream-work, the material subjected to this pro-
cess consisting of drift clay and gravel, the debris of the
rocks on which they repose. These rocks consist of clay,
slates, and interstratified gray sandstones, associated with
conglomerates, serpentine, and various ores of iron ; and it
seems probable that the gold-producing regions will have
the same geographical limits as those we have assigned to
the Quebec groiip of rocks. The precious metal has not
hitherto been found in any considerable quantity in the
quartz veins which traverse these regions, but it has been
proved that these veins do produce it, and there can bo
little doubt that the gold found in the drift has been derived
from quartz veins, probably situated not far distant. The
largest nuggets found vary from one-half to six ounces.
The work of gold-washing in the drift has been prose-
cuted to a limited extent, during the last twelve years, by
various companies and individuals, and with fair success.
In 1851, the Canada Gold Mining Company commenced
a trial of the drift along the Riviere du Loup, near its junc-
tion with the Chaudiere ; their operations extended over
three years, the greatest part of the gold being obtained
in the bed of the river, and, allowing for the large amount
of unprofitable preliminary labor, the results are suffi-
ciently encouraging.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BBITISU NORTH AMERICA. 331
The following are the returns for the years 1851 and
1852, as given by Sir William Logan:
Year. Area washed. Gold collected. Value.
1851 I acre. 2,107 dwts., 11 grs. $1,826.46
1852 I " 2,880 " 19 " 2,496.69
Wages. Profit.
$1,644.33 $182.13
1,888.35 508.34
Total, 1 aero. 4,987 dwts., 30 grs. $4,323.15 $3,532.68 $690.47
Sir William states that during the time of his observa-
tions the deposit yielded about double wages. Since this
company discontinued their operations, no regular attempts
have been made to turn the auriferous drift to profitable
account, excepting on a very small scale by the French Ca-
nadian habitants, who occasionally bring to Quebec nug-
gets of considerable size as the fruits of their labors.
There seems little doubt, however, that, were the field laid
open to foreign enterprise, and the improved modern sys-
tems of separating the precious metal systematically pros-
ecuted, the gold fields of Canada would attract much
attention. Probably the government does not deem it
politic to encourage a description of industry which has, if
unduly excited, somewhat of a demoralizing efiect upon
the population.
CHROMIC IRON.
This mineral, which is highly prized for the manufac-
ture of the chromates of potash and lead, and for the pro-
duction of many beautiful rod, yellow, and green colors, is
found in considerable quantities in the eastern townships
of Canada, chiefly in Bolton, Melbourne, and Ham, and
in the Sliickshock Mountains in Gaspe. It is usually found
associated with beds of serpentine, in which the ore occurs in
masses or nodules, sometimes about 1,000 pounds weight,
but usually of much smaller diraenoions. In the township
of Ham the bed has oeen partially worked, and has pro-
duced about ten tons of the ore, containing forty-five per
cent, of oxide of chromium, from seven square fathoms of
the bed. Besides the localities specified, chromic iron is
found in many other places in Canada, but generally not
I
. Aui*»i-''-
332 MINEKAL KESOURCES OF BU1TI8H NORTH AMERICA.
in sufficient aggregation to be profitably workable. The
value of this mineral in England is stated to be about one
dollar per unit per ton, whieh would afford an ample profit
upon its exportation, and a very handsome return to jnirties
who would undertake to invest capital in the preparation
of the oxide from the raw material, in the province itself.
The fullowiu": remarks on the method of manufacturino:
bichromate of potasli in Norway, by Mr. Thomas Macfar-
lane, of Acton, will be found interesting:
" The ore, in fine powder, is ignited in a reverberatory
furnace, with about thirty per cent, of calcined potash and
little or no saltpetre. The resiilting mixture yields, on
lixiviation with water, a solution of neutral chromate of
potash, which separates as a granular salt on e\%aporation.
It is redissolved, and the solution treated with a certain
quantity of sulphuric acid, when crystallized bichromate
of potash is obtained ; one hundred parts of ore yield
about thirty-seven of bichromate, equal to twenty percent,
of chromic oxide.
" The manufacture suffers from expensive cartage of
fuel, and high prices of potash, which is chiefly imported
from Russia. In Canada, at South Ham, Bolton, and Mel-
bourne, the ores are much richer and more extensive ; in
the first nained place, containing forty-three per cent, of
chromic oxide. In Canada, around the mines of the east-
ern townships, the settler destroys acres of timber, the
softer parts of which he might burn into charcoal, and
manufacture tons of potash, which the chrome miner
might buy, and use to manufacture his ore into chromate
of potasli, at a highly profitable rate. I am not aware of
any district where greater advantages exist. May they
Boon be appreciated and taken advantage of as they de-
serve."
IRON OCHRES.
Very extensive beds of hydrated peroxide of iron, con-
stituting the ochres of commerce, are distributed in many
parts of Canada, and chiefly in association with the bog
k
1
MINERAL KESOUKC'ES OF BKITISU NOKTII AMEKICA. 333
iron ores, which are, in point of fact, nearly of the sumo
origin and composition, only diii'ering in the condition in
which their elements are combined. In many pUicea
these snbstances are actnally found in process of i'ornia-
tion, the iron being visibly precipitated from springs hold-
ing it in solution.
Some of the ochre beds of Canada have been partially
worked, and supply an excellent material, of a great va-
riety of shades of color. The principal locality where
the manufacture of this description of paints has been
carried on is at Pointe du Lac, on the north shore of the
St. Lawrence, near Three Rivers, in Lov. er Canada, where
the deposit occupies an area of about 400 acres, with an
average thickness of eighteen inches ; but the enterprise
appears for the present to be abandoned. It was prepared
for the market at very little cost, and the works were ca-
pable of producing twelve barrels per day, worth five dol-
lars per barrel. Sir Wm. Logan remarks in his Report,
in regard to the exhibition of Canadian minerals at Lon-
don, in 1851 : " I was informed by one of the principal
manufacturers of paints in London, that the iron ochres
from Canada were of the best usual description, and equal
to those now imported from France. The French ochres
imported into London in the crude state, and prepared
there on a large scale, can be sold to a profit at £3 ($15)
per ton ; and the superiority of the English manufacturers
over the French is such, that the latter, preparing the ma-
terial at home and exporting it to London, cannot ob-
tain a profit unless they can sell the commodity at £G ])er
ton. The charges of freight may render it difiieult to
transport the Canadian ochre across the Atlantic at a
profit, but the abundance of the material in the country
should surely render it unnecessary that any should be im-
ported into this or the neighboring colonies."
SULPHATE OP BARTTES.
This mineral, otherwise called heavy-spar, and which m
much used in the manufacture of a white paint, and for
,ii>jm'"
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334 MINEllAL liESOCRCES OF BRITISH NOKTH AMERICA.
adulteratinp; white lead, occurs abundantly at Baryta
Island, in Lake Superior ; and also in the townships of
Bedford, Bastard, Lansdowne, and McNab ; it forms, in
conjunction with calc-spar, the gangue of many of the
metallic veins, chiefly those of galena. At one place in
the township of Bastard, as described by Mr, Murray,
assistant provincial geologist, these minerals constitute a
vein traceable for a quarter of a mile in length, with a
breadth of twenty -eight inches, consisting in some places al-
most entirely of pure crystallized sulphate of barytes, yield-
ing about ten tons per fathom. The value of the crude mate-
rial is said to be $8 to $10 per ton to the manufacturer,
while the manufactured article is worth $30 per ton.
STEATITE OR SOAPSTONE.
This mineral, which is composed of silica and magnesia,
possesses many valuable aiid useful properties. It is soft
and unctuous to the touch, capable of being worked into
any required shape by common carpenters' tools, and is
little aifected by exposure to intense heat or strong acids.
In Canada it is used occasional!}'- as a refractory stone,
and is found in beds of twenty and thirty feet thick re-
spectively, in the townships of Sutton and Bolton, associ-
ated with serpentine and dolomite. It also exists in the
townships of Leeds and Stanstead, where it is ground and
employed as a paint.
LITHOGRAPHIC STONE.
A species of limestone belonging to the period of the
lower Silurian formation, and occurring in the township
of Marmora, in the vicinity of the iron-works already men-
tioned, is found to be exceedingly well adapted to the pur-
poses of lithography, and attracted much attention and
commendation at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851,
although hitherto no attempt has been made to quarry it
for use. The bed from which this valuable material is de-
rived is of great lineal extent and about two feet in thick-
I
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MINERAL KE80UBCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 335
ness, and is distinguished for its perfect homogeneity^ close-
ness and compactness of texture, and other excellent
qualities for the purpose referred to. Another locality of
this material, in the upper Silurian rocks, has recently
been discovered in Canada West, near Walkerton, Brant
count}', where not less than fifteen beds of limestone, ad-
mirably adapted for this purpose, occur in a thickness of
nine feet. Good lithographic stone is said to be worth
about seven cents per pound.
MICA.
This remarkable mineral is found in great abundance
and of extreme purity in some parts of Canada, and has
been to a limited extent applied to economic purposes.
" The cleavable character of mica," says Sir William Lo-
gan, " its transparency, its elasticity and refractory nature,
render it valuable for several purposes, the more impor-
tant of which relate to it as a substitute for glass for ships'
windows, and in some countries for house windows, for
stove fronts, and such like applications. For the latter
purpose it is greatly used in North America. The price
at which plates of five by seven inches sell in Montreal is
about a dollar the pound." Sir William further states
that the Canadian mica attracted so much notice at the
French Exposition in 1855, as to induce inquiries by an
artist in Paris, who stated that he could use about 12,000
lbs. annually. He could afford to pay the following prices
for square plates of it, according to size :
From 3J inches to 5J inches $34.00 per 100 lbs.
" 5| " 7| " 40.00 "
" 7| " " " 46.75 "
" »| " » " 53.57 "
In Grenville, on the Ottawa River, where the mineral
is found in great quantity, but in patches imbedded in
massive pyroxenic rock in contact with a bed of crystalline
limestone, crystals of mica have been oh ained giving sheets
measuring twenty-four by fourteen inches. At another
,»^W"'-
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330 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
locality in the township of North Burgess, near the Kideau
Canal, the mineral is found in regular veins, or rather bands,
running parallel with each other at no great distance apart,
some of which are as much as four feet in width, and can
be traced for seventy-five yards in length. These deposits
havp yielded good plates, which when dressed measure
twenty by thirty inches; the average size, however,
varies from three to ten inches square, of which great
quantities can be obtained in this locality.
At present the demand for mica is rather limited, but
there can be no doubt that a material possessing such re-
markable and valuable properties must, in the progress of
the arts, and when its abundant supply is established, find
many economic applications.
In addition to the uses mentioned above, it has recently
been much employed in photographic manipulations, and
for the manufacture of stable and other lanterns ; and
large flakes are eagerly sought after by optical instrument
makers, for dials for ships' compasses. A flake one inch
thick can be divided into the astonishing number of 2,000
sheets.
Recently a new field has been opened up, by a patent
process for the application of mica, previously colored or
metallized, to the decorating of churches, rooms, shops,
and other ornamental and useful purposes. The mica
from its unalterable nature, preserves the gilding, silver-
ing, or coloring from deterioration, and from its transpa-
rency the articles so treated will preserve all their bril-
liancy. The value of mica depends upon the size of the
sheets and their transparency. In the London market, to
which Canada has supplied about two tons, of the total net
value of £450 sterling, the Canadian mica is not so much
esteemed as that from Calcutta, which commands from
two shillings sixpence to four shillings per lb., while tlie Ca-
"nadian will rarely exceed two shillings. The location in
North Burgess, mentioned above, has supplied the only mica
hitherto exported from Canada, so far as we are aware.
!
£
MmEBAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 337
PLUMBAGO, OR GRAPHITE.
The crystalline limestones of the Lanrentian system,
and some of the lower members of the Silurian system,
are marked by the occurrence of this mineral in many
cases, diffu'sed in small scales and flakes ; but sometimes
in sufficient aggregation to be economically available. The
chief locality where it seems to occur in workable quan-
tities, is in the townships bordering the north bank of the
Ottawa river, below Ottawa City. A bed of tolerably pure
graphite has been partially worked in the township of
Grenville ; it has been traced at intervals for a distance of
about three miles, and shows on the surface a thickness of
ten inches ; but the purer portions of the band appear to
form lenticular masses, which cannot be depended upon
for continuous working, and, consequently, may not be
found profitable in mining. This, so far as hitherto as-
certained, seems to be the character of the deposits of
graphite generally throughout Canada. At the present
time it is essential to the commercial value of this mate-
rial, that it should be almost free from gritty or stony par-
ticles ; but economical methods of purifying it will doubt-
less be applied at an early day, and will secure a regular
market for the Canadian ulumbago, some of which is found
in a state of great purity, and is worth from eighty to
one hundred dollars per ton. The chief apj^lications of
this material are for the manufacture of crucibles for brass-
founders, for glazing gunpowder, blacking stoves, &c., and
for diminishing friction in heavy machinery. Processes
have recently been patented in England, by Messrs.
Brockedon and Brodie, for the purification of ordinary
plumbago, so as to render it fit for the manufacture of
black-lead pencils. These have been ascertained to be
successfully applicable to the Canadian article, and will
thus render the mining of this valuable mineral, on an ex-
tensive scale, well worthy of attention. We are not aware
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338 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
thilt any considerable quantity of plumbago has yet been
produced in Canada.
MINERAL MANURES.— PHOSPHATE OF LIME.— GYPSUM.—
SHELL-MARL
Apatite or Phosphate of Lime. — This mineral, the con-
stuuent elements of which form the base of animal bones,
is found in great abundance in the Laurentian rocks of
Canada; and although not hitherto brought into very gen-
eral use as an artificial manure, is plentifully distributed by
the hand of nature from the debris of the rocks among the
soils, contributing no doubt very materially to their fertil-
ity and value. Its occurrence in rocks of such primitive geo-
logical age, points to the existence of animal life at a period
vastly earlier than the received geological theories admit.
The mineral phosphate of lime has for some years back
attracted considerable attention, both in England and the
United States, as a substitute for guano and bone-dust.
So important is the substance deemed, that the British
government sent commissioners to Estremadura in Spain,
where the mineral is found, for the purpose of arranging
for its importation into England ; but the result was that
it did not appear to exist in sufficient quantity ; so that the
only mineral phosphate now used by the agriculturists in
England is obtained from the crag on the coast of Suffolk.
This, however, is very impure, containing nmch carbonate
of lime and other earthy matters ; while the mineral ])hos-
phate found in Canada is nearly in a pure, and much of
it in a crystallized state. Although it has not yet been
mined to any considerable extent, sufficient has been as-
certained with regard to its mode of occurrence to render
it certain that it can be obtained in very great quantities,
and it may be hoped that it will supersede the use of
bones, of which probably not less than £400,000 or £500,-
000 worth are annually imported into England. Besides
the use of bone-dust for agricultural purposes, several
thousand tons of it are annually used in England for the
MINERAL KES0URCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 339
manufacture of china ware, at a cost of from seven pounds
to ten pounds per ton. Probably the mineral phosphate
might be successfully applied as a substitute for this pur-
pose also. As a manure it has been actually applied to
the land with great success ; but a good and cheap method
of decomposing it, previous to applying it to the soil, is
Btill a desideratum. The usual mode of applying it as a
manure, is to grind the mineral to powder, and treat with
coarse sulphuric acid ; about two-thirds of the phosphate
is thus at once liberated, and enters into combination with
the soil, while the remaining third will act upon the
ground the ensuing year, by becoming soluble by natural
agencies.
This mineral is found very extensively distributed
among the Laurentian rocks, both in detached nodules
and in crystals ; but the most important locality of its oc-
currence hitherto discovered is in the township of South
Burgess, whe;-*^ it forms a massive bed of unknown though
evidently very great dimensions, which has been quarried
to a small extent. Another deposit in the adjoining town-
ship of Elmsley, but which, from the direction of the beds,
seems to be in the same band, has also been worked a little,
and apparently forms an irregular bed in the Laurentian
limestone. This bed has been traced upwards of a mile,
and seems to be about ten feet wide, of which three feet
are nearly pure crystalline apatite, containing about ninety
per cent, of phosphate of lime, the remainder being mixed
with the limestone rock, in which, however, the phosphate
greatly predominates. The deposit in South Burgess has
the great advantage of being very easily quarried, and of
being situated immediately upon one of the reaches of the
Rideau canal. The mineral is stated to be worth from
twenty to thirty dollars per ton in England, the value of
course varying according to the percentage of phosphoric
acid. When we consider tlie bearing of the phosphate of
lime upon the animal and vegetable economy, we must
regr.rd the discovery of this substance in such abundance,
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340 MINEEAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
and so easily accessible, as one of the most valuable of the
sources of wealth which has been added to the country
during the last few years.
Gypsum. — In regard to this valuable material, the fol-
lowing extracts from a lecture delivered by Professor Hind
of ToTonto, in 1857, are pertinent and exhaustive: "Tlie
vast areas occupied by the rocks yielding gypsum in
Western Canada have for many years been regarded as
sources of great national wealth. Our gypsiferous rocks
extend from the Niagara to the Saugeen, a distance of 150
miles, and have a breadth varying from five to fifteen and
even twenty miles. Gypsum has been quarried in the
townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida, Cayuga, and
others in the valley of the Grand Kiver ; it will probably
be found in great abundance in the valley of the Saugeen
when that fertile tract of country becomes better known.
" Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is used in the arts for
numerous purposes. It is employed by potters for pro-
curing moulds with its calcined powder, moistened with a
proper quantity of water. The finer kinds are selected
for the maimfacture of the alabaster ornaments so much
admired. "When properly calcined, and ground to a fine
powder, it ie^ largely employed for stucco-work, statues, and
statuettes; when mixed with glue or gelatine, colored
stuccoes of great hardness and beauty are made from it.
It is admirably adapted for taking casts of objects, and is
frequently employed for that purpose. "When mixed with
alum, borax, or potash, a variety of materials greatly prized
in the plastic arts are produced. The subject is one of
general interest, aird the vast deposits of gypsum in Canada
will no doubt become considerable sources of wealth when
the proper time arrirea.
"For agricultural purposes the value of gypsum is too
well known to require rnuch notice here ; a growing ap-
preciation of its worth is shown in the yearly increasing
demand, and it is now found for sale in large quantities in
most Canadian towns. It i>* a fact ascertained by tlie ex-
d
la
th
3d
in
ex-
A
%
MINERAL BES0URCE8 OF BRITISU NORTH AMERICA. 341
perience of very many years in France and Germany, and
more recently in America, that gypsum, when judiciously
applied, sometimes doubles and even trebles the quantity
of certain plants usually grown on a given area. A study
of the mode and time of applying it, and of the plants
most benefited by it, ought not to be lost sight of in Can-
ada, where it so largely abounds. The value of the exports
from Canada of ground plaster and hydraulic lime shows
a steady and important increase. In 1853 it was £1,310 ;
in 1S51, £2,017; and in 1855, £19,112."
Sir William Logan remarks : " All the gypsum mines
at present worked in Canada occur on the Grand River,
in a distance of thirty-five miles, extending from Cayuga
to Paris. All the mines appear to be confined to one
Btratigraphical position in the formation, which is probably
about the middle. The mineral occurs in lenticular
masses, varyine^ in horizontal diameter from a few yards
to a quarter of a mile, with a thickness of from three to
seven feet. The layer of gypsum appears to be in general
both overlaid and underlaid by beds of dolomite, much of
which is fit for the purpose of liydrMulic cement, and the
gypsum itself is sometimes interstrat.'fied with thin beds
of dolomite. In some parts there appear to be two work-
able ranges of gypsum, one a few feet above the other.
But this probably is only to be considered as a thickening
of the gypsiferous band with an interstratification of a
larger mass of dolomite."
The business of mining gypsum in Canada, and of pre-
paring it for the market, has been in existence for the last
fourteen or fifteen years. The following is the amount
raised annually from the quarries on the Grand River,
according to Sir Wm. Logan's returns :
Tons.
T. Martindale, Onoida, 3,500
J.Donaldson, " 1,500
A. Taylor, York 3,000
Thompson & Wright, Paris 4,000
J. Browu, Cayuga, 2,000
14,000
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342 MINERAL KESOUBEES OF BRITISH NJRTH AMERICA.
The greater part of this gypsum is employed for agricul-
tural purposes, and the prices at which it is sold are aa
follows : —
Per Ton.
Plaster, unground $2.00
" ground for agricultural purposes 3.50 — 4.00
" " stucco, raw 5.50 — 7.00
«• « " calcined 16.00
Much of the produce of these mines is sent to be ground
and prepared for market by Mr. Brown of Thorold, on the
"VVelland Canal, who has for the last fifteen years manu-
factured on an average 1,000 tons annually.
Shell Marl. Vast deposits of recent shell marl and cal-
careous tufa are found in various localities, and in all parts
of Canada, too numerous to be here specified. Wherever
they occur the land is characterized by a luxuriant vege-
tation, and dense growth of hard-wood timber, indicating
their extraordinary fertilizing properties on the soil. The
deposits of shell marl extend in some instances, as in the
township of Sheffield, county of Addington, C. W., about
400 acres, with a thickness over the greater portion of at least
ten feet. One of the deposits of calcareous tufa is supposed
to extend over more than 1,000 acres, with an average
thickness of five feet.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT.— ROOFING SLATES.
At several points, and in various geological formations m
Canada, silicious dolomites occur, which, when carefully
calcined and ground, are found to furnish a very superior
description of water-lime or cement, which rapidly hardens
under, and permanently resists the action of water ; this
invaluable property being due to their containing a definite
proportion of silicious and magnesian salts associated with
the lime. The principal localities where limestones hold-
ing the proper admixture of the materials named have been
discovered are at Paris, Cayuga, Thorold, Kingbton, and
Loughborough in Canada West, and at Nepean or Hull,
Quebec, and the Magdalen River in Gaspe, Canada
•f <l
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MINEBAL RESOURCES OF BUITISH NORTH AMERICA. 343
East. In some of these localities the beds have been
worked; those of Hull and Thorold are of excellent qual-
ity and are highly esteemed. Daring the construction of
various railway and other public works witliin tlie last ten
years, the quantity of cement manufactured by Mr, Brown
of Thorold averaged 80,000 bushels annually, but at present
the quantity does not exceed one-tenth of that amount.
The present price of the cement is from twenty to twenty-
five cents per bushel of sixty pounds. The average annual
value of cement ground at the Thorold mills, for the last
eighteen years, varies from $3,000 to $0,000.
Roofing Slates. — " Slate is a material daily becoming
more valuable, on account of the vast variety of useful
purposes to which it is applied. One of its most import-
ant characteristics is its strength ; it is computed to be
about four times as strong as ordinary stone, and slabs
eight feet long and upwards can be safely used of a thick-
ness not exceeding half an inch. It is a non-absorbent of
moisture, and is thus adapted as an admirable lining for
wells and for roofing houses. The economical importance
of slates has attracted attention to their distribution in
Lower Canada, and already large quarries are worked which
furnish slate of a superior quality." — Professor Hind's
Lecture.
Sir William Logan makes the following valuable re-
marks on the numerous useful applications of slate : " IS^ot
only is it a] 'plied as a covering for houses, but it is employed
as walls for cisterns to hold water, slabs of fifteen feet by
eight being sometimes used for this purpose ; in smaller
dimensions it is used for wine-coolers, dairy dressers,
kitchen and hall flooring, tables, chimney mantels, and
a multitude of other purposes where surface is required.
In its application as tables and chimney-pieces, it is capa-
ble of receiving a high degree of decoration : the tables,
after being dressed to the smoothest possible surface, are
embellished with gilding, or with paintings in colors resist-
ing fire, showing landscapes or imitations of stone; and a
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341 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
silicious varnish being applied, the stone is subjected to a
heat which melts the varnish into an enamel, and produces
a brilliant result. Chimney-pieces in the same way are
enamelled over the natural color of the stone, or over a
fancy color given to it. "When the color is black, it is
difficult to distinguish the slate from a brilliantly polished
and valuable black marble, while the cost is comparatively
small. The great number of purposes to which good
slate is applicable render the rock of great economic import-
ance and well worthy of research." To the many advan-
tages above enumerated, attending the use of this material,
may be added the extraordinary facility with which it can
be worked into any required shape.
The best slate quarry hitherto found in Canada is Mr.
Benjamin Walton's, in the township of Melbourne, C. E. ;
the band of slate is one-third of a mile wide, and overlies
serpentine rock ; thus marking its geological position *^o
be in the Quebec group of the lower Silurian system, and
probably equivalent to that of the far-famed Welsh slate
rocks. Mr. Walton commenced preliminary operations in
1860, and has produced slates for the market since the
spring of 1861. In opening up the quarry an expendi-
ture of about $30,000 is said to have been incurred, and
during last year the value of slate sold has been about
$8,000.
These slates are held in high repute for their excellent
quality; and it is confidently anticipated that, when in
full operation, this quarry will find an abundant market
for its produce, not only in Canada, but in the western
cities of the Union. The following table, given by Sir
Wm. Logan in his Catalogue of Economic Materials for
1862, exhibits, first, the sizes of the slates in inches ; sec-
ond, the number of such slates in a square (of one hundred
square feet); and, third, the price per square at which
Mr. Walton supplies-his slates, placed on the railroad cars
on the Quebec and Richmond branch of the Grand Trunk
Railway, which is within one and a half mile of the quarry.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 345
Sizes,
24X1G.,
24XU.,
24x12.,
22x12.,
22x11.,
20x12..
20x11.,
20x10.,
18x11.,
18x10.,
18 X 9..
Number.
.. 8G..
.. 98..
..114..
..126..
..138..
..141..
..154..
. .1G9..
..175..
..192..
..213.,
Price.
, $4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
, 4.00
Sizes.
16x10.
16 X 9.,
10x8.,
14x10,,
14 X 9.,
14 X 8.,
14
12
12
12
7.
8.
7,
6,
Number.
,,222...
..246...
..277...
..262...
..291...
..327...
..374...
..400...
..457...
• .Ooo . . •
Price,
,$3.75
. 3.75
. 3.70
. 3.00
. .3.00
. 3.00
. 2.75
. 2.75
. 2.50
. 2.25
Canada abounds in materials of the beat quality appli-
cable to common and decorative construction, such as
clay for bricks, etc., building stones of every description,
flags, marbles, porphyry, and many stones applicable to
jewelry — also grindstones, and whetstones of a very su-
perior description ; but want of space compels us to omit
all special notice of these products.
PEAT.
We must not omit mention, however, of a substance
which is found here, perhaps more largely distributed and
of a better quality than in any other country in the world ;
and which is probably destined at no distant date to be-
come of great economic importance. We refer to peat.
This description of fuel is found to form an excel-
lent substitute for coal in many countries where the latter
invaluable substance does not occur ; and for tlie manu-
facture of the best kinds of iron, for which the Canadian
ores are especially adapted, peat would be found peculi-
arly applicable. Various contrivances for compressing
peat have recently been patented, and introduced into Eng-
land and France ; and if this can be economically effected
in Canada, there will be a very large field open for the
employment of this department of national industry. As
the country becomes more thickly settled, wood will rap-
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346 MLNEBAL BE80UKCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
idly disappear, and in tins exigency the peat hogs of Can-
ada will afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel, second in
value only to beds of mineral coal.
Peat occurs in f^roat abundance in mahy parts of the
province; in the Island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, there is an area of not less than 160 scjuare miles,
occupied by a peat bog ; the thickness of peat varying
from tiiree to ten feet where observed. This is the largest
peat field in Canada, and the general quality of the mate-
rial is excellent. Including this deposit. Lower Canada
contains probably not less than 1,000 square miles of this
valuable material, and in many peaces the thickness is
much greater than that mentioned above. Canadian peat
is found, on a careful comparison, to contain less mineral
matter than that usually found in Europe. An attempt
was made, some eight or ten years ago, to introduce this
material into Montreal as a fuel, but not being prosecuted,
with sufficient energy and perseverance, it fell to the
ground. There can be no doubt, however, that at no dis-
tant date, and especially in that large and flourishing city,
where the material is very abHndant in the immediate
neighborhood, sufficient inducements will be offered for
the prosecution of this branch of industry.
PETROLEUM.
This very remarkable mineral product has for the last
two or three years attracted a large share of ])ublic atten-
tion in Canada, where its existence in such abundance as
to afford promise of a great and permanent traffic has been
fully recognized. Never, perhaps, has there been nn in-
stance of an extensive trade so rapidly developed as in the
case of the rock oil business in Canada,
The locality in which the oil springs have for the most
part been discovered and worked in Canada is the town-
Bhip of Enniskillen, county of Plympton, in the western
peninsula; and the geological position is the summit of
the upper Silurian, or base of the Devonian systems of lime-
T^
MINEBAL BE80URCE8 OF BRITISJl NOETH AMERICA. 347
Btone rocks, being a lower horizon than that of the oil
wells of Pennsylvania and Oliio. The petroleum owes its
origin, in all probability, to the slow subterranean docoin-
position and biLuminization of organic matter, botli ani-
mal and vegetable, but chiefly the latter, which have been
deposited with the ovher materials of which the rocks are
composed. The resulting fluid ainl L'lseous matters, float-
ing on the surface of the water whicii raeates the strata,
accumulate chiefly along tlie sumnn )f a flat anticlinal
axis, which traverses the vvestern | nsula of Canada,
penetrating the fissures or cracks in the rocks. The oil re-
veals itself at the surface, either by hydrostp.tic pressure
or by the elastic force of the vapor, where the superficial
clays are penetrated, either by natural or artificial means.
The fact of the existence of petroleum springs in West-
ern Canada is by no means a new discovery, although it is
only very recently that they have been ascertained to be
of much economic importance. At several points along
the banks of the river Thames and Bear Creek in the west-
ern peninsula, the oil has been long known to exude at
the surface, and float along the water ; and was used in
the neighborhood as a remedy for cuts and cutaneous dis-
eases in horses. In the south part of the township of En-
niskillen two patches on the sni-face of the ground, of an
acre or more in extent, are found to be covered to a con-
siderable depth with a viscid mineral tar or asphaltum,
which has resulted from the oxidation and drying up ot
springs beneath. It is the existence of these superficial
deposits that first attracted attention to the substance as a
source of illuminating oil ; and it was speedily discovered
that, on penetrating below the asphalt into the underlying
clay, great quantities of the oil could be obtained in the
fluid state, and consequently much nearer the condition
required in the manufacture. The first adventurer in this
field was Mr. W. M. "Williams, of Hamilton, who com-
menced operations in 1857, and to whom alone is due the
merit of developing this branch of industry in Canada, as
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848 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
well as of pointing out the road to success in the same di-
rection in the United States. The capital which Mr. Wil-
liams and his associates have embarked in the works is
about $50,000 ; the oil obtained at their wells is conveyed
in barrels to Hamilton, a distance of upwards of 100 miles,
and there refined for the market. Refineries are now,
however, in operation to a considerable extent in the oil
region itself!, there being not less than six estal)lishments
of the kind in Enniskillen, and about an equal number in
other parts of the province. The refining process consists
in rectifying by repeated distillations, deodorizing by treat-
ing with acids, and subsequent washing in alkalies.
Sir William Logan estimates that "within an area of
about four square miles, in the first three ranges of the
township of Enniskillen, there were supposed to be in
August, 1861, about seventy wells yielding more or less oil.
Of these forty were surface wells, that is, wells sunk from
forty to sixty feet throuj.,li the drift clay and gravel to the
rock beneath. Some of these latter, which had yielded
but little oil, gave abundant supplies by boring into the
rock. The oil-bearing fissures or veins in adjacent wells
were met with at depths varying from 3(3 to 100 and ever
150 feet front .,he surface of the rock." Since the date to
which Sir AVilliam refers many other wells have been sunk,
and there are now several hundreds in the township, many
of which, however, do not yield oil. In some cases, by pene-
trating to depths exceeding 200 feet from the surface,
what are called " flowing wells " liave been obtained, and
these, from their extraordinary yield of oil, and from tlie
circumstance that it is procured without pumping, for the
present eclipse in importance all the rest ; but experience
in other regions has proved that these valuable qualities
do not continue to exist for any very lengthened period at
any one well. Some of the flowing wells, of which there
are altogether tweb'e up to the present time, are said to have
yielded at the rate of about 2,000 forty-gallon barrels in
t wenty-four hours. The petroleum from these deep wella
MINERS T^ RESOUUCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 349
is lii^liter, more fluid, and better adapted for the manufactaro
of illuiriinatiiig oil than that from the surface wells.
The total yield of the Enniskillen oil region, till the com-
mencement of 18G2, is probably about 500,000 gallons, but
th's quantity by no means represents the capacity of the
wells ; as, from the difliculty of communication during a
great part of the year, the scarcity of barrels, or other ves-
sels to receive the oil, and, above all, the want of a regular
market for the produce, they have never been worked to
their full capacity. At present much activity prevails
among speculators in this interesting commodity, and there
is a prosjiect of very large exports being made of the crude
oil to England, and even to the United States, as the Cana-
dian petroleum is reputed to possess superior qualities for
refining purposes to that found in Pennsylvania and Ohio,
which is said to be too light, and to contain too much vol-
atile and explosive naphtha. So long as the flowing m'cIIs
continue their extraordinary yield, the price of the oil at
the wells is almost nominal ; yet such is the cost of handling
and transportation, that it is worth one shilling per gallon,
or from £15 to £18 sterling per ton, in England, including
packages.
The loss in refining, where illuminating oil only is pro-
duced, is considerable, and in these circumstances it wiL
obviously be of advantage, so long as fuel can be obtained
at a sufiiciently cheap rate, to refine the oil in Canada and
export it in that state. The refuse or heavier products
of the distillation, however, contain highly useful ingre-
dients, such as benzine, and many valuable coloring matters,
which in present circumstances can be turned to nuich
better account in England ; and thus it will probably be
found that the exportation of the crude oil will ultimately
form the stajfle business in this commodity. At present
rates, the cost of delivering one to' of crude oil in London
or Liverpool will not exceed £'J or £10 sterling, which
will leave a considerable margin for profit. There seems
little reason to doubt that an immense traffic in this article
it
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350 MINERAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
will sprinnj up between the two countries ; already abort
6,000 barrel:^ have been exported from Enniskillcn to Eiil;;-
land diirini^ the present season; and from 40 to 50 teams
are daily employed in hauling from the wells to the rail-
way station. Although it is impossible to predict with
any degree of certainty how long the supply may continue
at any one point, yet, from the facts that wells sunk (piite
near to each other have evidently an independent source,
and that tiiere is a very large area of country underlaid
by tlie oil-bearing veins, it is probable that the resources
of the country in this respect will not speedily be ex-
hausted.
MINEEAL RESOURCES OF ]N"OYA SCOTIA, NEW
BRUNSWICK, AND NEWFOUNDLAND.
In Nova Scotia the most important minerals of economic
importance hitherto discovered and "vrought, are coal,
gypsum, iron, and gold. We must be con^Mit with a very
slight sketch of the history and statistics of tl 3se products.
For the facts adduced we are indebted duly to Dr.
Dawson's valuable work on " Acadian Geology."
COAL.
The coal-fields of Nova Scotia have been long known to
be of vast extent and value, and have been worked more
or less since the first settlement of the colony by the
British ; when the imperial government, in making their
gi'auts of land, reserved for the crown all mineral rights,
and subsequently leased them to a company of capitalists
fltyled the General Mining Association, by whom the coal
has been for the most part mined and exported. The most
important are the Albion mines in the county of Pictou,
in the northern part of the province, where two seams of
excellent coal occur, of the enormous aggregate thickness
of thirty-seven and twenty-two feet respectively ; although
MINERAL EESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMEKICA. o51
of this total thickness only about twenty -four and twelve
feet can be said to be good coal. The main seam has been
very extensively worked, and its outcrop has been traced
for several miles ; but it is remarkable that it preserves its
character as a seam of good coal only for a very limited
distance on either side of the main shaft. The coal hitli-
erto exported has been obtained almost exclusively from
tiie up])er part of this seam, the workings being from
twelve to nine feet deep, and the lowest shaft sunk to a
depth of about 400 feet. Although the coal rapidly dete-
riorates in quality in all directions from the main shaft,
its thickness, together with that of the underlying deep
seam, is so great that there is no prospect of their being
speedily exhausted ; and long ere this occurs, there is little
room to doubt that other good seams will be discovered in
the same district. '
The quantity of coal raised at these mines in 1851 was
about sixty thousand chaldrons, and subsequently this
yield lias been still further increased. It is chiefly ex-
ported to the United States, and is admirably adapted and
extensively used in making gas, as well as for general
purposes. These mines afford employment to a popula-
tion of 2,000, and their produce is conveyed by a railway
worked by locomotives to the harbor of South Pictou, a
distance of six miles.
The folk)wing is an abstract of returns of coal raised,
sold, and exported at Pictou in the year ending Slst De-
cember, 1858 :
Lar^e Coal. Sinck Conl.
Total quantity raised and sold in tons 100,007^- 14,344i-
Of this there was —
Sold for liome consumption 9,212^- 4,519^
Exported to the United States 89,217 6,396
Exported to tho neighboring Colonies 2,178 3,419
Next in importance to the Pictou coal mines are those
of Sydney, at the north-eastern extremity of Cape Breton.
Here the productive coal measures cover an area of 250
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352 MINERAL RE80UECE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
square miles, and the aggregate thickness of the coal seams
amounts to thirty-seven feet, of which, however, only-
twenty feet are of good quality, or workable thickness.
The mines are worked here, as in the preceding instance,
by the General Mining Association, who raise annually
from the Sydney main seam 80,000 tons of coal, which is
conveyed by railway to the bar at N^orth Sydney for ship-
ment. About 30,000 tons are annaally consumed in Nova
Scotia, the remainder being exported to the United States.
The quantity of coal annually raised i'l the county of Cape
Breton, and almost entirely at Sydney, is stated in the
census of 1851 at 53,000 chaldron %
In Cumberland county, on the confines of New Bruns-
wick, occurs the celebrated " South Joggins Section" of the
carboniferous system of rocks, which forms such an attract-
ive object to geologists, and has thrown so much light on
the theory of the coal formation, and all matters relating
thereto. Here, from the relative conditions c^ dip and
coast line, we find extending over a distance of about ten
miles, an exposure of not less than 14,000 feet in vertical
thickness, of successive rock formations, comprising the
whole of the carboniferous series, and includinc: more than
seventy distinct seams of coal. Of these, however, only one
seam is of sufiicient thickness to" work, consisting of two
beds, three feet six inches and one foot six inches thick,
respectively, with a clay parting between, varying from
one foot to a few inches. It is a free-burning bituminous
coal of fair quality. The quantity of coal shipped in 1851,
was only 2,400 chaldrons ; it was exported principally to
St. John's, New Brunswick. Other seams of good coal, of
much greater thickness, have been discovered in this car-
boniferous district, but at too great distance from navigable
waters to be profitably mined, until tlie general progress
of the country admits of the construction of railways or
other sources of demand for the material.
The total quantity of coals raised in Nova Scotia in 1851,
according to the census returns, was 115,000 chaldrons ; in
T
MmERAL EESOTJKCES OF BRITISn NORTH AMERICA. 353
1856, 120,668 chaldrons, valued at £86,027, were exported,
while in the first nine months of 1857, the shipments were
valued at £90,315, which are the latest official returns we
possess. These figures show a rapid and extensively in-
creasing trade.
There can be little doubt that the coal of Nova Scotia
is suflicient to supply the whole steam navy of Britain for
many centuries to come, and also to meet amply the de-
mands of the other North American colonies bordering on
the Atlantic, which possess within themselves no coal-fields
of any importance.
GYPSUM.
This useful mineral occurs in very great abundance,
associated with the carboniferous rocks of Nov^a Sco-
tia, and is mined to a considerable extent at several
points, but chiefly in the districts of Hants and Colchester.
Tlie gypsum of Nova Scotia occurs in various forms and
conditions ; sometimes as an hydrite, or hard plaster^
which is not at present applied to any useful purpose,
being too hard to be profitably ground for agricultiu'al
purposes, though very well adapted as a substitute for
marble. Sometimes the common gypsum is found in beds
and masses, and sometimes in veins cutting the soft marly
sandstones of the carboniferous series ; in the latter case
the gypsum is generally of a fibrous structure. The prin-
q\\)'a\ point where this mineral is quarried for economic
jjurposes, is on the banks of the river Shubenacadie, in
Hants, where immense masses of pure gypsum rise boldly
from the banks, occasionally to the height of one hundred
feet, presenting an inexhaustible supply of the mineral.
It is also largely quarried at Windsor, Newport, Walton,
and several other places. In 1851, the quantity exported
amounted to about 80,000 tons, the value of whi(!li at the
port of shipment would be about $40,000, the greater part
being exported to the United States for agricultural pur-
poses. It is at present only quarried in places accessible
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354r MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
to shipping, and its small value per ton indicates tlie fa-
cility vnth which it can be obtained, in a country where
wages are high.
At otlier parts of the province, as in Cape Breton, verj
large deposits of the mineral are found, but not at present
worked.
IRON.
A very extensive and remarkable deposit of iron ore,
which promises to be of mucli economic value, occurs, as-
sociated with the metamorphic upper Sihirian rocks of
the Cobequid hills, in the county of Londonderry. This
deposit attracted attention as early as the time when the
land on which it occurs was granted by the crown, and it
had been brought into notice at various times subsequently.
Since 1845 the extent and economical capabilities of this
deposit have been discussed by several writers, and it has
been opened, and smelting furnaces put in operation by an
association of capitalists, under the title of the " Acadia
Mine." This enterprise has recently been taken up by a
powerful English company.
This vein occurs near the junction of the carboniferous
and metamorphic series, and runs nearly, although not al-
together, with the stratification of the rocks, which are
tilted into a vertical position. It contains a great variety
of different ores of iron, as magnetic, specular, hetnatite,
&c., as well as other minerals ; it is in one place not less
than 120 feet in thickness, and has been traced for a dis-
tance of seven niles. " The deposit," says Dr. Dawson,
" is evidently wedge-shaped, being largest and richest on
the surface of the highest ridges. It contains, however,
an immense quantity of valuable ores of iron, though its
irregular character opposes many difficulties to the miner.
Difficulties have also been found in smelting the ore to
advantage ; but these are often incident to the first trials
of new deposits, to which the methods applicable to others,
of which the workmen have had previous experience, do
not apply. It is to be hoped, however, that these prelimi-
MINEEAX BE80URCE8 OF BRIXISH NORTH AMERICA. 355
nary hinderances have been overcome, and that the mine
will soon become highly profitable to the proprietors."
The following general estimate of the value of the deposit
is quoted from an elaborate report made in 1849, by Dr.
J. L. Hayes, of Massachusetts, which is further interesting,
as furnishing a statement of the comparative value of iron
ores at different places :
" From the descriptions above given, it is evident that
although the unlimited extent of the ore at a particular
point can only be determined by working the deposits,
yet an immense field is open for exploration and working.
Although it is probable that an abundant supply of ore
will be found upon the mountain last described, at a price
not exceeding $2 per ton of iron ; if this should not be
the case, an ample supply can be furnished from the
other localities at an expense which, including raising and
hauling, could not exceed $4 to the ton of iron. I would
advise the opening of the veins at diflerent points upon
the line, to determine the cheapest point for mining, and
the ores which can be used most advantageously. If this
is done, the price of the ore cannot be fairly set down at
the sum for which it can be obtained at the nearest locality,
but at an average of the prices of the ores from different
localities, delivered at the point selected for the furnace.
This may be estimated at $3 to the ton of iron.
" The value of this locality with respect to ore may be
judged of by conrparing it with establishments in the
United States. In Berkshire Co., Mass., at some estab-
lishments which have been successfully conducted, the
price of the ore is between five and six dollars to the ton
of iron. In Orange Co., N. Y., ore yielding between forty
and fifty per cent, costs between four and five dollars to
the ton of iron. At one locality iu New York State the
ore costs ten dollai's to the ton of iron ; at some establish-
ments on Lake Champlain, ore costing one dollar per ton
at the mine is carried twelve miles to the furnace. The
ore at the Baltimore furnacea costs over seven dollars to
23
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356 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
the toD of iron ; this is also about the average cost of the
ore at the furnaces in Pennsylvania. Estiniaiing the cost
of the ore ev^n at four dollars to the ton of iron, there will
be an advantage over the average American localities.
" The cost of ores at some of the Swedish and Russian
furnaces is still greater. In certain parts of the Ural
Mountains the minerals are carried by land to the forests,
a distance of from forty to eighty miles. Some of the
forges of Sweden are supplied with minerals from Pres-
burgli and Dannemora, which are transported by land car-
riage, the lakes, and the sea, to distances exceeding 370
miles.
" I have no doubt that iron of the first quality for purity
and •:l'.ongth, and which will command the highest prices
in the market, can be made from these ores. If Mr.
Mushet's opinion, based on his own experiments, that these
ores will furnish steel-iron equal to the best Swedish brands,
should prove correct, these ores possess a rare value ; for
of the many charcoal iron establishments in the United
States, I know but one which furnishes iron suitable for
making the first quality of steel."
In the district of Pictou and the neighborhood of the
Albion Mines, already described, there occurs an immense
bed of iron ore, which, from its situation and concomitant
advantages, must eventually become of great economical
importance.
GOLD.
Since the excitement with regard to the wonderful gold
discoveries in California and Australia arose, reports have
from time to time obtained circulation of similar discoveries
in Nova Scotia, where the rock formations of the south-
east Atlantic coast bear a remarkable resemblance to those
of the auriferous regions in the countries named. Until a
very recent period, however, these rumors have invariably
been found to be devoid of adequate foundation in fact.
In 1855, Dr. Dawson, in his "Acadian Geology," expressed
JIINEEAL KESOUBCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 357
I
the opinion, founded on geological considerations, that
gold would probably be found in that region, but his re-
marks would lead to the inference that it might not prove
to be of much economic importance. In 1857, Mr. John
Campbell, a gentleman of considerable scientific attain-
ments, obtained gold by washing the sand of the beach
near Halifax harbor. Tliis was the first actual discovery
on record of gold being found in Nova Scotia, and since
that time Mr. Campbell has devoted liimself assiduously
to the development of this branch of her natural resources.
In the year 1860, some important discoveries of the pre-
cious metal were made in the valley and toward the head-
waters of the Tangier Eiver, about forty miles north-east
of Halifax, which created an immense 'excitement for a
time, and tempted many to leave their ordinary avocations
to search for gold, which, however, was not found in suffi-
cient quantities to reward the labor, and consequently the
excitement speedily subsided.
In the month of March, 1861, fresh discoveries of con-
siderably larger quantities were made near the mouth of
the same river ; and since that time there has been a steady
increase in the number, and also in the confidence, of the
adventurers engaged in this pursuit, as well as in the as-
3ertained extent of the gold-producing country, which may
now be regarded as comprising an area of 6,000 or 7,000
square miles, being the entire region occupied by the
metamorphic lower Silurian rocks of the Atlantic coast,
the corresponding geological position to that in which it
is found in most other countries. The description we
have already given of these rocks as they occur in Cnnada,
will apply to the same formations in Nova Scotia.
The most recent and authentic information hitherto ob-
tained in regard to the Nova Scotia gold fields, is con-
tained in an article contributed by Dr. Dawson to the
" Canadian Naturalist," for December, 1861 ; and in an
elaborate report by Messrs. Poole and Cimpbell (1862),
who were specially appointed by the provincial govern-
It m
:'!'-]
358 MINERAL KE80UBCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
mont to investigate the matter. From these documer.ta
■\ve shall condense the most important particulars relative
to this interesting subject. In this province, although the
general conditions in which the gold occurs are doubtless
the same as in other auriferous regions, it is remarkable
that it if found chiefly in the quartz veins traversing the
rocks, rather than in the superficial clays constituting the
debris of these rocks. With the exception of one locality,
" The Ovens," near Lunenburg, seventy mile? west from
Halifax, where a considerable quantity has been obtained
in the sand of the beach, formed by the action of the
waves upon the rocky cliffs, placer washings and surface
diggings have not proved remunerative in Nova Scotia.
On the other hand, the quartz veins, on which the Cali-
fornian and Australian digger is accustomed to look with
suspicion, are here remarkably productive; an instance is
upon record where one and a half ton of quartz has pro-
duced seventy-two ounces of gold, valued at $1,296. The
veins have been traced continuously for a distance, in
one case, of two and a half miles, and found to pay well
throughout this whole extent. In many instances the
veins are exposed at the surface, and, where concealed by
drift clay, its thickness is very inconsiderable, rarely ex-
ceeding six or eight feet. In mining in the veins them-
selves, their richness appears to increase with the depth ;
and there is much to encourage the hope that deep mining
will prove the most successful to the adventurer, as well
as the most permanent and reliable source of wealth to
the province.
The most important gold fields in Nova Scotia hitherto
discovered occur in the district of country eastwards from
Halifax to Cape Canso, a distance of 130 miles, with an
average breadth of about twenty miles. Within this area,
Mr. Campbell has recognized the existence of five bands or
lines of elevation, running nearly parallel with each other
and with the general coast line, and exhibiting at some
places arched or folded strata of dark-colored clay-slate,
MINERAL EESOURfES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 359
traversed by quartz veins, of thickness var^'ing from one
to nine or ten inches, following the planes of bedding in
the strike, but frequently cutting the strata in the direction
of the dip, sometimes in wavy or zigzag lines. There are
also larger veins, from one to three feet in thickness, but
the thin veins first referred to are invariably the richest in
gold. The metal occurs, for the most part, disseminated
in irregular grains and masses in the quartz : it is found
most abundantly at and near the walls of the veins, and is
usually associated with iron pyrites and misplckel^ or
arsenical pyrites. The largest nugget yet found is said to
be valued at $300.
It is impossible to state, with any degree of accuracy,
what amount of gold has been hitherto obtained in Nova
Scotia, as, in almost every instance, the claims have been
worked by private individuals, who are generally unable
or disinclined to give the requisite information. Even if
ascertained, this would afford no criterion of the value of
the gold fields, as the search has hitherto been prosecuted
only in the rudest manner. At one claim at Tangier $2,400
are said to have been realized in a very short time ; $1,300
from another, and $480 from a third, while many have
yielded little or nothing. A statement we have recently
seen gives the daily yield as 100 ounces, valued at $18 per
ounce. The Nova Scotia gold is of remarkable purity. The
principal localities where mining has hitherto been carried
on are Tangier, Wine Cove, Laurencetown, Sherbrooke,
Isaac Harbor, and Lunenburg. With the exception of
Lunenburg, the district of country westward of Halifax
has not as yet produced much gold.
The provincial government have surveyed and divided
the principal gold fields into claims of twenty feet by fifty
feet, and exact an annual license fee, or rent, of $20 for
each claim. It is to be hoped that a more liberal policy
will prevail, and greater encouragement be extended to the
adventurers, as the claims are much too small, and the
rent too high, where the risks of mining are bo great.
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360 Ml iiL RES0URCE8 OF BBITI8II NORTII AMERICA
"In one important respect," says Dr. Gesnei, "the
Nova Scotian <;old tields poi^sess a very i^reat advantage
over those of Aintraha, Cahfornia, or British Gohiinbia :
namely, t'lat the rooks containing the gold in the greatest
abundance are near the Atlantic coast, and intersect a
number of the smaller rivers and harbors, whereby facili-
ties are afforded to supply the requirements of mining.
It is not at all probable that ihe richest gold deposits in
Nova Scotia have yet been discovered ; but there is enough
known to satisfy the most sceptical that the province con-
tains an nple amount of the precious metal to warrant
the mo tensive operations, and the employment of ma-
chinery . ts mining and purification."
NEW BRUNSWIC .:.
The province of New Brunswick has not hitherto at-
tained much consequence as a mining region, although a
very great part of its area is underlaid by the coal-measures ;
and many of the metals and other useful minerals are
known to exist within its bounds.
The coal formation of New Brunswick occupies an area
which is somewhat triangular in outline. Its base rests on
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends from Batlmrst on
the north to the Nova Scotia frontier on the east. Its
apex is at the Oromocto Lake ; and its north-western mar-
gin runs ft'om thence to Bathurst, while on the south-east
it approaches the Bay of Fundy.
It is worthy of remark, that only the south and south-
east sides of the great New Brunswick carboniferous basin
have yet been explored.
Within this area the only point at which coal mining
operations on an extensive scale have been carried on, is
MINEBA.L RE80U90E8 OF RRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 301
at the Grand Lake in Queens County, between Little River
and Coal Creek, at the head of the lake. Here mining
leases, covering a space of about forty-five square miles,
wore granted by the crown in 1849 ; this area being sup-
posed to cover all the available coal ground in this lo-
cality.
Tlie number of distinct beds of coal is uncertain ; the
average thickness of those which are worked, is about
twenty inches ; the depth of the coal below the surface
seldom exceeds forty feet. The quality is excellent, being
hard, rather lustrous, giving out much heat in burning,
and lasting longer than most other coal. The amount
brought to market in 1854, was about 3,000 chaldrons,
but the mines are capable, with proper management, of
producing at least double this amount. "We are not aware
whether these mines are now in operation.
We have now to refer to a very remarkable mineral de-
posit, allied to coal, which has been discovered in this
province, and somewhat extensively developed, and has
assumed much economic importance as a source of illu-
minating oils and gas.
We refer to the Albert coal. This remarkable mineral,
which appears to partake of the distinctive characteristics
of coal, asphalt, and jet, without belonging to either class,
occurs in the county of Hillsborough, near the southeast-
ern boundary of the province, in an irregular vein, varying
from one to thirteen feet in thickness, sometimes cutting
and sometimes coinciding with the strata through which
it passes, and which has been mined to an extent of several
hundred feet on the length of the vein.* We are not
aware of the amount or value of the material extracted ;
it has been used chiefly in the manufacture of illuminating
oil, of which it yields, by distillation, a very high percent-
* The material is one of the most beautLful of all carboniferous products ;
it is jet black, brilliant, and lustrous, with a conchoidal fracture, and is ex-
tremely brittle. Its composition is : carbon (fixed at redness), 36.04 ; volatile,
61.74; ash, 2.22; equal to 100. Coke, 38.26 Specific gravity, 1.13.
'0, >.
i I
302 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISn NORTH AMERICA.
age, and of the very best quality ; but since the discovery
of the extraordinary petroleum wells of Pennsylvania and
Western Canada, no other source (so long as it lasts) can at
all compete with this for the purpose named.
The metalliferous rocks of the Appalachian chtvln trav-
erse the northern part of the province, and may be ex-
pected, when the country becomes settled and explored, to
yield the same results as in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the
Eastern States of the Union. Already geld, lead, and
copper have been found in these rocks in New Bruns-
wick, and the deposits of iron ore are rich and extensive.
The principal locality of copper is at and near the village
of Bathurst, on the Bay Chaleur. Here rocks of the car-
boniferous system, or perhaps even higher in the geological
horizon, and occupying the region bordering on the coast
for a distance of live or six miles back, are found resting
on the " primitive slate formation," probably of lower Si-
lurian age. About seventeen years ago, a deposit of very
rich copper ore was discovered in the bank of the river
Nepisiguit, about one and a half miles from Bathurst, where
mining operations were commenced, and about twenty -four
tons of very rich vitreous copper ore, said to contain a
considerable proportion of silver, were taken out ; but the
deposits not being sufficiently regular to pay mining ex-
penses, the enterprise was abandoned.
Subsequent observations on the nature of these deposits,
and of the enclosing rocks, leading to the belief that they
were secondary products, derived from the debris of the
older rocks lying farther inland, search was instituted in
these rocks, which resulted in the discovery of seme im-
portant copper lodes on the Tattagouche river, seven miles
from Bathurst, which are now being developed by an
American company. The lodes are said to be highly
promising, being of great thickness, and having all the
usu.al accompaniments of good copper veins ; but the
works having been temporarily suspended, we are unable
to learn the results. Very considerable sums of money
MINEEAL BE80URCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMEfilCA. 303
have already been expended in minitig in this locality.
One remarkable peculiarity in the mineralogical character
of tliis region is the occurreno-- of great veins of manganese
ore in the neighborhood of the copper lodes, tliough in a
rock of a different color.
A considerable deposit of copper pyrites has been dis-
covered near Woodstock, Carleton county, about sixty
miles north-west from Fredericton, in a true vein which
has been traced for upwards of 2,000 feet on tlie strike,
and traversing talcose and felspathic slates of the same
geological age with those of the Tattagouche river. Min-
ing operations were instituted here in 1858, to the extent
of sinking trial shafts and costeenings, which have proved
the deposit to be of considerable importance and value.
We are not aware whether this mine is still worked, or
to what extent it has proved commercially profitable.
The Tattagouche and Woodstock mines are situated at
a distance of about 130 miles apart, on a broad band of tlie
formation ; and the fact of such apparently valuable de-
posits being found at the extreme points of such an ex-
tensive area, the intermediate parts of which are as yet
entirely unexplored, points to this as a highly promising
field for mining enterprise.
Besides the metals above named in New Brunswick,
deposits of plumbago and gypsum, and salt springs of a
liigli degree of saturation, are found in many parts of tho
province.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
The geological structure and mireral resources of tho
islHnd ef Newfoundland were examined and reported on in
1849, by Mr. Jukes, who gave it as the general result of
his investigations, that the island is not favorably situated
for useful minerals.
The coal formation occurs on a small portion of tho
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364 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICi.
west side of the island, but the beds of coal do not appear
to be of any considerable thickness ; although it is quite
possible that more important seams may be found, should
the district ever be thought worthy of a thorough exami-
nation. Gypsum is very plentiful on the island. Coj)per
was worked in Newfoundland upwards of a century ago,
to a slight extent, and in 1845 attempts were made to re-
vive the work. The copper veins were found in the "lower
slate formation" (probably the equivalents of the Quebec
group in Canada), in Shoal Bay, south of Peck Harbor,
at the eastern extremity of the island. Owing to the un-
productive character of the work, however, it was speedily
abandoned.
A very remarkable lode of iron pyrites, containing also
much copper ore, was discovered during the year 1861,
about one mile inland from Little Bay, on the north-
east coast of Newfoundland, and a company has been
formed for working this and another similar deposit on
Trump Island. A grant of these claims has been obtained
from the colonial government, free from royalty during
the first five years. Vigorous operations were commenced,
during August of that year, by Mr. F. A. Gisborne, min-
ing engineer, who turned the course of two rivers, at the
junction of which the lode came to the surface. Tiie lode
v/as thus uncovered for a length of 200 feet, show in*; a
thickness varying from twenty to forty feet of solid ore.
The true course of the lode appears to be six or eight de-
grees north of east, and south of west; the northern
country being a soft serpentine, and the southern kilhis,
or slate ; tlie north wall, so far as proved, goes down verti-
cally. After various trial pits had been sunk (all of which
proved a rapid increase in the richness of the vein for cop-
per, within a short distance from the surface), a stope was
commenced, forty-two feet in length and eight feet Avide,
along the north wall ; from this stope a cargo of 150 tons
was obtained, and shipped to Swansea. The ore is found
'u compact hui'izoatul beds, or floors, averaging twenty
*
j^j^^^^gj^jg^^
MINERAL KESOURJE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 365
inches in tliickness ; and at ten feet from the surface, would
average eight per cent, for copper, and forty per cent, for
sulphur : the surface ore yielding only from one to two per
cent, of copper, this rapid increase in richness is truly re-
markable. A shaft is now being sunk in the lode, and
will yield about twenty-five tons of ore per cubic fathom,
a result rarely surpassed in any mine.
BEITISH COLUMBIA, AND YANCOUYER
ISLAND.
The present has been, perhaps, more prolific than any
preceding generation in wonderful discoveries in the arts
and sciences, and especially in those means and appli-
ances which tend to promote intercourse between distant
parts of the world. A striking illustration of this remark
is afforded by the late extraordinary and unprecedented
discoveries of gold in California and Australia, which
have done more in a few years for the settlement and civili-
zation of these ''emote regions, than might otherwise have
been effected in as many centuries. Still more recently
another region, yet more remote from the beaten paths
of nations, has been discovered to abound in the precious
metal ; by whose potent influence British Columbia is
rapidly becoming linked to the brotherhood of civilized
nations.
Yancouver Island, on the western shores of the Pacific
ocean, has been long regarded in England, notwithstanding
its great distance, as a promising field for settlement and
colonization, on account of the fertility of its soil, the se-
curity of its harbors, the excellence of its climate, and the
reported abundance of coal on the island. These circura-
B^ances, together with its admirable adaptation generally,
as a depot for the naval forces on the Pacific, early at-
tracted the attention of the British government, and dis-
,ili,iU*^'-
S-'^f '.
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306 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
posed them to afford every encouragement to emisiration ;
but it was not till the year 1856,* when the governor ot
the island reported to the imperial government the fact,
that gold had been found in considerable quantities within
the British territory on the Upper Columbia, that any
considerable emigration took place. From that date to the
present, the ascertained area and reputed richness of the
British Columbian gold fields have steadily and rapidly
increased ; and the influx of adventurers into Victoria, the
capital uf Vancouver Island, and the nearest port for the
gold fields, has augmented in proportion.
The auriferous region of British Columbia comprises a
vast, though unknown, area on the western slopes of the
Rocky Mountains. Hitherto the discoveries have been
chiefly confined to the left bank of the Frazer river, and
its numerous affluents from the east, and to the head
waters of the Columbia river ; the aggregate linear extent
of which may be computed at 1,000 miles. The country
is broken up into mountains and ravines; there is really
no level ground, except the tops of the mountains, which,
curiously enough, are all flat and level. The ravines are
characterized universally by what the miners call " bench-
es," or terraces running along their sides. These benches
are all auriferous as far as they have been tested. The
geological formations and conditions are precisely similar
to the gold-bearing region of California, of ^vhich in fact
this forms only the northern extension ; and it is worthy
of note, that gold mining has proved more successful in
California the further north it has been prosecuted, The
rocks consist of what (for want of a more precise designa-
tion) is now called the primary slate formatioTi — probably,
as in other auriferous regions, the metamorphic lower Silu-
rian— thrown up and pierced by masses, veins, and dikes
of quartz, granite, porphyry, and other so-called igneous
rocks ; the debris from which, together with their precious
♦ The oarliost reported discovery of gold in British Columbia, howover,
was in 1850, and agaiu in 1653.
MINERAL EE80UECE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 367
metalliferous contents, form vast accumulations of sand,
gravel and clay, extending from the base of the mountains
to the banks of the rivers, which, as we have before stated,
constitute for the present the iield of labor for the miners.
There is, however, reason to believe that ample scope will
be found for their exertions at a distance from the princi-
pal rivers.
As a general rule, the gold is found in smaller particles
and less in quantity nearer the mouths of the rivers, and
both size and quantity increase as we ascend them. At
the celebrated Cariboo district of the Frazer river, a lump
of pure gold, weighing seven pounds, is said to have been
obtained, and all the gold there is coarse. It will be
readily inferred from what we have said, that tl e adven-
turers confine their attention entirely to placer diggiiig and
washing, and this method of working will doubtless, for
many yeai's, be that universally adopted ; but there can bo
little doubt that the auriferous veins which have supplied
these washings will ultimately be discovered,* and will
afford inexhaustible supplies of the precious metal for gen-
erations to come. The principal difficulties to be con-
tended with at present are, the want of roads or moans of
conveyance into the interior of the country ; the difficulty of
obtaining provisions, tools, and other materials ; the fresh-
ets on the rivers, &c. ; to which may be added, the hostility
of the native tribes of Indians, who, though at present ap-
parently friendly, are treacherous and capricious.
In Vancouver Island, although gold has been found and
actually worked in a few places, it has not hitherto been
obtained in paying quantities. There is every reason to
believe, however, that important gold fields may yet bo
discovered on the island. Rich copper ore has also been
found, but hitherto it is undeveloped.
Although here, as in all other gold-producing regions,
wonderful instances of good fortune occur, and are noised
* A rich auriferous voia was discovered in 1862, in Mitchell Harbor, Queen
Charlotte's Island.
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3G8 MINERAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
abroad, there are equally laraentabk, and, we fear, miicli
more numerous cases of failure, or at least of very mod-
erate success. We do not therefore think it necessary to
chronicle, as is the fashion with newspaper paragraphists,
any great strikes, but shall confine ourselves to a statement,
from authentic sources, of the quantity of gold actually
obtained, and the number of hands employed, during the
years 1858 and 1859, from which we shall be enabled to
deduce their average earnings.
" In 1858," says Mr. Despard Pemberton, the surveyor
general of V^ancouver Island, in a recent work containing
much valuable information on this subject,* " the greatest
monthly shipment of gold from British Columbia was
$235,000, and the least was about $6,000 ; and the total
product of the gold mines for that year was estimated at
$1,494,211 (Yide Gazette, April 19th, 1859). From data
before me, I believe the amount mined in 1859 to have
been about $2,000,000 ; but, to be moderate, assume the
product of the two years at $3,000,000 ; the number of
miners actually at work at any time in the country cannot
have exceeded 3,000, as the mining licenses show {Gazette,
June 9th, 1859, estimates them at 2,000), which gives the
miners' average earnings at £100 sterling." Mr. Pember
ton probably somewhat underrates the prospects of success,
but his " facts and figures " render it sufficiently obvious
that, taking into account the aggregate results, adven-
turers will not be justified in forming very sanguine ex
pectations.f Mr. Pemberton adds : " In California the
average earnings are about half as much, but the country
is open and accessible ; and therefore the means of living
and creature comforts much more plentiful, which leads
the miner to prefer it far to British Columbia, notwith-
Btanding the higher pay in the latter."
! .1
* " Facts and Figures relating to British Columbia and Tancouver Island."
London, 18G0.
f It should be rt>inarked that the miners can only work four months in tbe
year.
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MINERAL KES0UECE8 OF BEITISH NORTH AHERICA. 369
Assuming, as we have every reason to believe, that Mr.
Pemherton's statistics are correct up to the time lie wrote,
the last two years seem to have greatly improved the pros-
pects of the gold miner in British Columbia, for we find
a statement, apparently upon reliable authority, of the
yield of 1861, and number of men employed, wliich gives
a much higher average : —
79 miners took out an aggregate of $92G,G80
400 ditto, claim owners, took out 600,000
1,021 ditto, at $7 a-day, in 107 days 704,729
Total yield, nearly all from Cariboo . .$2,291,409
1,500 miners who worked in other
I places for 180 days at $10
per diem $2,700,000
2,000 ditto, at $5 1,800,000
4,500,000
5,000 miners— gross yield for 1861 $6,791,409
Giving an average of $1,358 or about £272 sterling a year
COAL.
The consumption of coals by steamboats on the Pacific
is enormous, perhaps not less than 200,000 tons a year.
It is, therefore, an object of much importance to secure a
supply at the nearest point. The coal formations come to
the surface towards the coast of British Columbia, and
have attracted some attention ; but the principal source of
mineral fuel on the Pacific coast is undoubtedly Van-
couver Island. Outcrops of coal occur at several points
along the eastern coast of the island, and attempts have
been made at var'ous times, by the Hudson's Bay Company,
who have, until very recently, held possession of it, to turn
these discoveries to profitable account. The earliest rec-
ord we can find of such works is in 1849, at Beaver Har-
bor, at the north-east extremity of the island ; but this
locality was soon abandoned as hopeless. Further search
has, however, been rewarded by the discovery of extensive
seams of workable coal at Naniamo, about sixty miles
north of Victoria, in latitude 49° 15', longitude 123° 45'.
!"'
141
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'«m«MPiMi>^pp
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370
MINERAL BE80URCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
"We subjoin the following detailed account of mining op-
erations here, abridged from a paper by Col. Grant, read
before the Geographical Society of London, in 1857.
" The coal at Naniamo was first discovered by Mr.
Joseph McKay, in 1850, who was directed to it by the
Indians of the neighborhood. The same seam was dis-
covered on Newcastle Island, and several other small
islands in the channel, and the Indians soon got out two
hundred tons. A pit was commenced by ten regular
miners, on the 17th of September, and a shaft sunk to a
depth of fifty feet, being through twelve feet of alluvium,
eight feet of sandstone, and thirty feet of shale ; the situa-
tion of the pit is at the north-west extremity of Np-niamo
harbor. Here they struck another seam of from six to
seven feet in thickness, lying on conglomerate ; they are
now regularly working this seam in several parallel gal-
leries, extending to a considerable distance already under-
ground. The seam here runs nearly level, although with
sutficient dip to insure good drainage. The greatest quan-
tity of coal that has been raised from it was at the rate of
120 tons per week, with eight regular miners. The other
seam has been discovered outcropping at another place, at
a considej'able distance from the working already de-
scribed, and an adit level is being driven upon it. "Work
has been done at four different places, three on the upper
seam, which is of an average thickness of six feet, and one
as above described, on the lower seam, about the same
thickness and of precisely similar quality, situated fifty
feet lower than the first. The pit is situated within a few
yards of the water side, and vessels drawing sixteen feet
can anchor close to it ; notwithstanding its proximity
to the water, very little pumping is required. It is the
opinion of the head miner that coal may be found any-
where within a circumference of two miles from Naniamo,
at a depth of fifty or sixty feet below the surface. Alto-
gether, there are few places where coal can be worked so
easily, and exported so conveniently as from Naniamo."
MmEBAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 371
As the Hudson's Bay Company Lave recently surren-
dered their territorial rights, it has been decided to sell the
coal mines, which have accordingly been acquired by a
powerful English company, who will doubtless work them
to their full capacity. Altogether about 6,000 tons of coal
have been exported from Naniamo up to the present date,
of which one-half may be said to have been worked and
loaded by Indians, and the rest by regular miners. It is
chiefly used by the British steamers, those of the Hudson
Bay Company, and by the steamers plying between Vic-
toria and Frazer river ; and is worth from four to six dol-
lars per ton at the pit mouth. The coal is of excellent
quality, very like that from the "West Riding of Yorkshire ;
the chief objection to it is that it burns too quickly, and
leaves behind a good deal of slag, which makes it difficult
to keep the furnaces clear ; it is, however, very strong,
rich coal, and of high heating power.
Mr. William Downie, who was sent by the governor of
Vancouver Island to explore the region in the north of
British Columbia, along the coast to Fort Simpson, and
back into the interior, as far as Stuart Lake, reports, under
date October, 1859, that he considers this the best looking
mineral couPitry in British Columbia ; in some places gold
was discovered; rich veins of excellent plumbago were
found, and an extensive coal country occurs, where seams,
varying in thickness from three to thirty-five feet, were
exposed in the banks of the rivers. Notwithstanding its
excellent soil and climate, however, and its mineral riches,
it is to be feared that unless the government assists in its
development, this regiqn must long remain in its primitive
condition.
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.
QcrrE recently gold has been discovered on British ter-
ritory on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains,
toward the head-waters of the Saskatchewan and Peace
24
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372 MINEEAL BE80CUCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
rivers, and expeditions have been fitted out and are now
engaged in proving the productiveness of this vast and
unknown region. Should the gold be found in any con-
siderable quantity, this wi]! be a great stride toward the
attainment of an object which has long been deemed of
vast importance for the intercourse and civilization of the
world; namely, the opening np, on the northern hemi-
sphere, of a practicable route between the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. The magnificent lake and river system
of Canada afibrds uninterrupted water communication for
nearly half the distance, and Lake Winnepeg and the river
Saskatchewan, together with the rivers flowing into the
Pacific, form a great part of the rest ; leaving only the dis-
trict lying between Lake Superior and Red River, and the
pass of the Rocky Mountains, to be overcome by land
transport. The country traversed by the Saskatchewan is
said to be remarkably fertile and to enjoy an excellent
climate, while coal and other useful minerals abound.
Were it for no other object, the opening up of this region
would be of inestimable importance, as the most direct
route fi'om England and Canada to British Columbia and
Yancouver Island, in preference to a long, dangerous, and
expensive voyage by sea. There can be no doubt that the
existence of a supply of coal in British territory on the
shores of the Pacific, and in the valley of the Saskatchewan,
will exercise a powerful influence, in combination with the
gold discoveries in British Columbia, in furthering com-
munication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts along
the route we have designated.
..^-^-„.^ —
T'^'^l
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION
m
UPPER AND LOWER CANADA.*
BY J. QEOBGB HODOINS, LL. B., F. E, O. &
SECTION I.
UPPER CANADA,— INTRODUCTORY.
By very many writers in Europe and America it lias
been asserted, and the assertion has been received without
question, that in the United States of America, before the
recent civil war, education was more generally diffused, and
was in a more flourishing condition than in any other part
of the world. It has also been stated that the institutions
of most of the United States and their systems of govern-
ment were and arc more favorable, if not more peculiarly
adapted to this educational success, than in any other part
of America ; but of late years a change has taken place in
public opinion in this respect, — an efficient system of popu-
lar education having in the meantime been established in
Canada. If this system continues to be properly directed
and vigorously maintained, as it has been hitherto, the result
will strengthen the conviction in the public mind that an
* This paper is divided into two sections and each section into three parts.
The first part of each section contains a brief historical sketch, in chronologi-
cal order, of the progress of education, including the universities, colleges,
grammar, common and other schools. The second part contains an account
in detail of universities, colleges, professional and other schools, together
with a list of various other educational appliances in operation in each portion
of the province. The third part contains various statistical information.
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374 HISTORICAL SKKTCII OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
entire compatibility exists between the working of free
colonial institutions, founded upon a monarchical basis, and
the development and growth of a highly popularized, yet
efiicient system of public instruction — such as has hitherto
been said to flourish only in a democratic country.*
The necessity for a national system of education in Cana-
da, had long been admitted by all parties, but the final es-
tablishment of such a system did not take place until within
a comparatively recent period. For, when public attention
was first practically directed to the accomplishment of that
object in 1836-7, the seething turmoil of political strife pre-
vented the immediate realization of those hopes of the
friends of popular education, which had only then been re-
awakened.
The political union of the Canadas in 1840 did not long
include an educational union of Upper and Lower Canada,
for since 1843, they have each had their own separate
educational systems.
TART FIRST— CHAPTER I.
FAP-
:)NAL EFFORTS IN UPPER CANADA, 1783—1806.
J3 to tlie state of education in Upper Canada,
el and in other publications of 1783 — 1805, are
very .v agre. All the writers, who do allude to the subject,
de? ribe the education provided in the few schools then in
existence as ve^v mfer" )r in its character, and the facilities
* The editor of the Ma.*'-
to Upper Canada, thus re'
vember, 1855 : He says,
Binn Bystom of schools, th
with most of its prominent
"tls Teacher, in giving an account of his visit
the educational system in the Teacher of No-
iucb has been written and said about the Prus-
vell-informed teachers have become familiar
atures ; but a system of education in some re-
fpecUi more complete and more imposing than (hat of Prussia has sprung up on
our own borders, which appears to have attracted less general attention
among us."
Ii
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN IfFKR CANADA. 375
for acquiring it but scantily diffused throughout the coun
try. This was chiefly owing to the sparseness ol" the popu-
lation and the remoteness of the new settlements.
One reason assigned by a highly intelligent American
traveller for the fewness of the schools in Upper Canada, in
179-1-9, throws so much light upon the political policy and
social state of the province at that time, that we quote the
passage entire. This traveller, on visiting Kingston, (then
the most important town in Upper Canada,) makes the fol-
lowing observations : " The object of the British nation is to
people and cultivate this country, and to make it as perfect
a part of the empire as possible. Dreading revolutions,
they are cautious in receiving republicans from the States,
and wish to encourage husbandmen and laborers only.
Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, and schoolmasters from the
States, are not the first characters who would be fostered.
Many congregations would have been formed, and schools
opened, if the policy in this particular had been different.
* * * » *
" An extensive field is opened for men of letters in every
profession. Destitute of colleges, academies and schools,
and confiding in the qualifications of the clergy ordained
by the bishops in the States, Governor Simcoe* wished to
have introduced such, but an act of the British parliament
disconcerted his design.
" When the Bishops of England were permitted to con-
* Colonel John Graves Simcoe was born in England in 1752. He entered
the army at nineteen, and commanded the Queen's Rangers (Hussars) during
the American revolutionary war, n?.") — 83. In 1792 he was appointed Lieuten-
ant Governor of Upper Canada ; and in September of that year he opened the
first Parliament of the province, at the town of Niagara, then called Newark.
In 179G, he removed the seat of government to Toronto, then called York. He
induced many of the American United Empire Loyalists to settle in Upper
Canada, and sought in every way to promote the prosperity of the province.
He constructed Yonge street, thirty-six miles, as a military road to the lake
which now bears his name. He was appointed Governor of St. Domingo in
1796, and was made a Lieutenant General in 1798. He died on his return to
Englnnd, in 1805, aged fifty-four years.
rm
376 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN I PPER CANADA.
secrate bishops for the States, a clause was inserted in the
act passed by parliament for the purpose, that nothing
therein contained should 'enable such bishops or clergy-
men ordained by them, to exercise their functions within
the limits of the nation.' This act of course applies to
Canada." The writer further remarks, that, ander this law,
" the clergy born and ordained in the States are excluded
from the parishes in the provinces ;" and that its operation
" has certainly defeated the extending of religion and learn-
ing in the provinces,"*
So far as we have been able to ascertain, the first school
opened in Upper Canada, was in 1785. In that year a
classical school was opened at Cataraqui, (Kingston,) by
the Kev. Dr. Stuart; another by Deacon Trayer at Port
Kowan, (Lake Erie,) in 1789.
The Duke de la Eochefoucault, who visited Kingston in
July, 1795, thus refers to the state of education in that part
of the country at that early date. lie says : " In this dis-
trict are some schools, but they are few in number. The
children are instructed in reading and writing, and pay each
a dollar a month. One of the masters, superior to the rest
in point of knowledge, taught Latin ; but he has loft the
school without being succeeded by another instructor of
the same learning." He also sta^'cs that "No newspaper is
pr.blished in Kingston ; that of Newark [Niagara] is the
only one published in Upper Canada, which being a mere
imperfect extract from the Quebec Gazette, is here taken in
by no one. I know but of two persons who receive even
the Quebec paper. As to the interior of the countiy, no
new3 penetrates into that quarter, a circumstance that ex-
cites there very little regret."
From the Upper Canada papers it appears that private
schools were established shortly after this time in several
* A Tour through Upper and Lower Canada. By a citizen of the United
States. Printed at Litchfield, (according to Act of Congress,) 1799. Pp. 55 — 57.
(
I
HISTORICAL SKJITCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CAJCADA. 3'''7
parts of Upper Canada. Among the rest a school was es-
tablished for the Six Nation Indians, and the teachers paid
by the king, at Mohawk, (Grand River,) — " the principal
village of the Six Nations, in a tract purchased from the Mis-
sassaga Nation for them by his present Majesty, (Greorge
III.) on account of their loyalty and attachment during the
late rebellion, in which they lost their possessions on the
Mohawk River, New York."*
The military chaplains at the different stations also did
what they could to promote education, but their efforts were
chiefly confined to their own immediate circle. The New
Testament, with Webster, Lindley Murray, or Dil worth's
Spelling-book, were the priixcipal text-books, in general use.
At a very early period in the history of the province,
and but six years after the first settlement of Upper Canada,
(1789,) a memorial was presented to Lord Dorchester, (Sir
Guy Carleton,) the then Governor General of British North
America, representing the great deficiency in all means of
instruction, and requesting his lordship to establish a pub-
lic school at a central place, such as Kingston, or Fron-
tenac, (the old French post,) which was then the principal
town in Upper Canada. In compliance with this request,
Lord Dorchester gave directions to the surveyors-general to
set apart eligible portions of >nd for the endowment of
schools in all the new townships. These lands, liowever,
long remained unproductive ; and before any benefit could
be derived from this solicitude on the part of the Governor
General, Canada was divided, by the constitutional act of
1791, into two distinct provinces ; and, in 1792, John Graves
Simcoe, Esq. was appointed the first Lieutenant Governor
of Upper Canada. In that year Rev. Mr. Addison estab-
lished a classical school at Newark, the seat of government,
• Topographicnl description of His Majesty's Province of Upper CaQad)k
By Diivicl Wm. Smith, Esq., Surveyor General of Upper Canada. London,
October, 1799.
U ' ' '
V,y:n I
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378 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
(now Niagara.) In 1794, the Kev. Mr. Burns, (father of the
late Hon. Judge Burns,) opened a school at the same place.
In 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Bishop
of Quebec, in which the following passages occur. " The peo-
ple of this province * * * havethemeansof governing them
selves. **■»«■ To this end a liberal education seems indis
pensably necessary; and the completion of such education
requires the establishment of a university to inculcate
sound religious principles, pure morals and refined man-
ners." ^
In November, 1796, an evening school was opened at
Newark, by Mr. Richard Cockrel,* who shortly afterwards
transferred his school to the Reverend Mr. Arthur,! and
removed to Ancaster, where he opened another school. In
1796, notice was given in the York Gazette, that "as schools
were now opened, ignorance would be no longer tolerated." ]
In 1798, a school was opened in Duke street, York, by Mr.
William Cooper.
In 1796, the Imperial Government, in a letter dated 22d
of June, and addressed by the Duke of Portland to Lieuten-
ant Governor Simcoe, acknowledged the receipt of a letter
from the Bishop of Quebec upon the subject of a school of a
higher class, to which Gov. Simcoe had called the Bishop's
attention, but which his Grace then did not think neces-
sary in Upper Canada. The Legislature of Upper Canada
thought differently, and, in the Spring of 1797, agreed
upon a memorial to His Majesty, George III., soliciting a
grant of land for the endowment of a grammar school in
* Mr. Cockrel's charges were 4s. per week, for ttucliing Writing, Arith-
metic, and Book-keeping. Time of tcacliing, from 6 to 8 o'clock, P. M.
f In his advertisement Mr. Artliur intimates that " if any number of boys
offer, and books can be procured, a Latin class will conmionce immodiately."
Ho al.so states that " besides the attention which ho ever wishes to pay to the
behavior, religious instruction and literary improvement of all his pupils, his
boarders will have tho benefit of private tuition in geography and other parts
of a useful and ornamental education."
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 379
each district, and a university for the whole province. To
the address a favorable answer was returned, embracing a
scheme of education more comprehensive in its character,
so far at least, as higher education was concerned, than that
which was proposed by the Legislature.
This response to the memorial of the Legislature was con
tained in a dispatch addressed by the Duke of Portland to
Peter Eussell, Esq., President and acting Governor of Upper
Canada, and was dated the 4th of November, 1797, as follows:
" His Majesty * * * being always ready to show his paren-
tal regard for the welfare of his subjects in the furtherance
of so important an object as the instruction of youth, and to
assist and encourage the exertions of his province in laying
the foundation for promoting sound learning and a religious
education, has expressed his gracious intention to comply
with the wishes of the legislature of his province of Upper
Canada, in such manner as shall be judged to be most ef- v
fectual. First, by the establishment of free grammar schools
in those distiicts which they are called for ; and, secondly, in
due process of time, by establishing other seminaries of a
larger and more comprehensive nature, for the promotion
of religious and moral learning, and the study of the arts
and sciences."
Peter Russell, Esq., the President, requested the chief
civil officers* to draw up a report on the subject. They
did so in 1798, and recommended a grant of half a million
of acres of land for the establishment of a grammar school
in each of the four districts into which Upper Canada was
then divided, and a central university at some future time.
They recommended, also, that a grant of £3,000 be made
to each of the districts in Upper Canada for the cectior of
"a plain but solid and substantial building containing a
school-room sufficient to hold one hundred boys without
danger to their health from too many being crowded to-
* These officers were the members of the Executive Council, the judge j
and law officers of the Crown in Upper Canada.
'Wk'!<'W^n|P|
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380 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA.
gether; and also a set of apartments for the master, large
enough not only for the accommodation of his family, but
also for the very desirable purpose of enabling him to take
a few (from ten to twenty) of his pupils as boarders," The
salaries proposed were £100 for the head master, £50 for the
assistant master, and £30 for repairs, &c. Kingston and
Newark (Niagara) were recommended as eligible sites for
schools; after which, when the funds were sufficient, schools
were to be established at Cornwall and Sandwich. York
(Toronto) was recommended as entitled to the university ;
and for the establishment and support of which a sum at
least equal to that granted to the four schools was named, y
Governor Simcoe authorized the lion. Messrs. Cartwright
and Hamilton, to select a person to take charge of the pro-
posed college. The Rev. Dr. Chalmers, having declined the
appointment, it was accepted by Mr. (now the Right Rever.
'end Doctor) Strachan (Bishop of Toronto.*) On his arrival
at Kingston, on the 31st of December, 1799, he found that
the project of a college had been abandoned. Governor Sim-
coe, in the meantime, having gone to England.
In 1799, an act was passed by the Upper Canada Legisla-
ture " to provide for the education and support of orphan
children." It authorized the township wardens, with the
consent of two magistrates, to bind and apprentice, until
they became of age, children desei'ted by their parents. In
1799, a school was opened near St. Catherines.
* The Uonornble and Right Reverend John Strachnn, D. D., LL. D., first
Protestant ]']|)iscopal Hishop of Toronto, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, on the
12th April, 1778. lie commenced life as a teaclier; and in 1800 opened a
private school at Kingston, and subsequently one at Cornwall. Among his
pupils (in Scotland,) were Sir David Wilkie and (in Upper Canada) tlio
late Chief Justices, Sir J. B. Robinson, and Sir J. B. Macaulay, Com- '
niodore Barclay, &o. lie was ordained a clergyman of the Church of
England on the 2d May, 1803, was minister of Cornwall in 1804, and Rector
of Toronto in 1812 ; was appointed a legislative counsellor in 1818 ; archdeacon
of York in 182'), and Bishop of Toronto in 1839. lie founded the University
of Trinity College, Toronto, in 1851—2.
'wm
HISTORICAL SKETCH »r EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
381
In August, 1801, a meeting of the proprietors of the I
Niagara Library was held at Newark, when it was resolved
that a call of $2 per share be made for the purchase of new
books. It was also resolved that new members pay $4 per
annum as subscriptions to the library, and old members $2
per annum.
It was soon discovered that half a million of acres of
land would endow but few grammar schools, land being
then only worth a shilling per acre ; the scheme had, there-
ore, to be abandoned. Meanwhile the Hon. Mr, Cartwright
made an arrangement with Mr. Strachan to instruct his
sons and a select number of pupils for three years. In 1803,
Mr. Strachan was ordained by the Bishop of Quebec, and
in 1804, he removed to the mission of Cornwall, where, at the
request of the parents of his former pupils, he opened a
private school. For several years this school was the
only one of any note in Upper Canada ; and in it were
educated some of those gentlemen who have filled some
of the most important positions in the province. In 1802,
Dr. Baldwin opened a classical school at York; and, in 1805,
Mr. Strachan held the first public examination of his school,
in Cornwall, at which all the principal persons in the neigh-
borhood attended. Subsequently Mr. Strachan's school was
constituted the Grammar School of the district.
CHAPTER II.
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION, 1806—1816.
The first legislative enactment relating to general educa-
tion was not passed, until March, 1807. This act provided
for the cstablishmentof grammar or high schools, but made
no provision whatever for the common schools; still, it did
good service, and was only finally superseded by a more
comprehensive measure in 1853. In the former year (1806)
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382 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
a temporary act was passed by the provincial legislature,
and made permanent in 1808, establishing a classical
and
mathemntical or "Public School" in each of the eight dis-
tricts into which Upper Canada was then divided;
and
granting £800 per annum, or £100 per school as the
an-
nual salary of the teacher in each district — the teacher to be
nominated by the trustees, but appointed by the governor.*
* In order to give effect to this Act, Lieut.-Governor Gore, on the 13th
March, 1807, appointed "the undermentioned gentlemen to be Trustees o
•'he
Public Schools in the several districU of Upper Canada :
"1. Eastern District \
" 5. Home District.
Sanjuel Sherwood,
Niel McLean,
Samuel Anderson,
Joseph Anderson,
John Crysler,
Alexander McMillan,
.1
P
Rev. Mr. Stuart,
D'Arcy Boulton,
John Small,
Duncan Cameron,
Samuel Smith,
William Graham,
Thomas Rldout,
1
Ctt
" 2. District of Johnstown,
" 6. District of Niagara.
Thomas Sherwood,
Ephraim Jones,
Solomon Jones,
James Campbell,
Elijah Bottom,
Hon. Robt. Hamilton,
Colonel Clark,
William Dickson,
Robert Kerr,
Thomas Cummings,
James Muirhead,
"3. Midland District.
John Symington,
Hon. Richard Cartwright, '
" 7. District of London.
Rev. Dr. Stuart,
Thomas Talbot,
Allan McIiCan,
s
Samuel Rycrse,
Joseph Forsyth,
Joseph Rycrson,
Thomas Maikland,
i'
William Hutchinson,
• s.
Piter Smith,
Thomas Walsh,
I
Alexander Fisher, i Ap'ci
Philip Dorland, |2May.^
John Coltman,
Daniel Springer,
" 4. District of Newcastle.
" 8. Westmi District.
Hon. James Baby, ■"
Asa Burnham, '
Rev. Mr. Pollard,
Leonard Sot)per,
1
Matthew Elliott,
. s.
Eliae Smith, SenV.,
Angus Mcintosh,
Eliaa Jones,
' 3
5'
John Askin, Sen'r.,
s
John Peters,
.»
Gregor McGregor,
"a
John Bleeker,
Alexander Duff,
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 383
In February, 1806, at the suggestion of Dr. Strachan,
an Act was passed granting £400 for the purchase of in-
struments for illustrating the principles of Natural Philoso-
phy, which were to be deposited in the hands of a person
employed in the education of youth. In January, 1808, M.
de Diemar opened a French school from 5 to 9 P. M., at
York, (Toronto,) and in August, Rev. Mr. Stuart, held a
highly satisfactory examination of hia school at the same
place.
In describing the state of education in Upper Canada
about this period, we quote the following observations from
a work published at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1814. by M.
Smith, of Richmond, Virginia, author of " A View of Upper
Canada," who resided in the province from 1808 until the
breaking out of the war of 1812. Mr. Smith says: " The
greater part of the inhabitants of Canada are not well edu-
cated ; for as they were poor when they came to the province,
and the country being but thinly settled for a number of
years, they had but little chance for the benefit of schools.
But since the country has become more settled, and the
inhabitants rich, or in a good way of living, which is almost
universally the case, they pay considerable attention to
learning, " Ten dollars a year is the common price given
for the tuition of each scholar by good teachers.
" Until lately, there was no Latin or Greek school kept
in the province. Now there are three — one in York, taught
by the Rev. John Strachan, Episcopal minister of that place ;
one on the Bay Quantie, by a Mr. Bidwell,* from the United
States ; and the other in Niagara village, by the Rev. Mr.
Burns. Good encouragement would be given in many
other parts to teachers of such schools, particularly in the
Niagara and London districts.
*' Notwithstanding that I said that the main body of the
* Father of the Hon. Marshall S. Bidwell, now of the city of New York
but formerly Speaker of the Upper Canada Commons House of Assembly.
*'
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384 UISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
iiiliabitants were not well educated, yet there are a number
of gentlemen in the province who have the best of learning.
" There is a public free school kept in every district, by
order of the king, the teachers of which receive annually
one hundred pounds sterling from the crown."* v^
In 1812, llev. Mr. Langhorn, a missionary for twenty
years, and a school-master, made a present of his library to
the inhabitants of the Bay of Quints. In 1814, Kev. Eobert
Baldwin was appointed Grammar School master at Corn-
wall, vice the Eev. Mr. Bethune, resigned. In 1815, an act
was passed by the Legislature to incorporate the Midland
District School Society. In 1816, an act was passed grant-
ing £800 for the purchase of a library for the use of the
Legislative Council and House of Assembly.
IM
CHAPTER IIL
FIRST ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, 1816—1822.
In 1816, (nine years after the grammar schools were
established,) legislative provision was first made for the
establishment and maintenance of common schools in
Upper Canada. The large sum, in that day, of £6,000 was
annually granted for this purpose,! and the people were au-
thorized "to meet together" in any town, village or town-
sliip, " to make arrangements for establishing common
schools in such town, village or township," at each of which
the attendance of pupils should not be less than twenty. It
also authorized that three " fit and discreet persons " should
be chosen Trustees, who were to ** examine into the moral
* Geographical view of the British Poesessions in North America, by M.
Smith, page 52 — Baltimore, Maryland, 1814.
t The appropriations under this first Common School Act of Upper Canada
were us follows: To the schools in the Midland District £1,000; in the
Eastern District £800 ; in the Home, Johnstown, London, Gore, Niagara and
Western Districts, £600 for each district ; in the Newcastle District £400, and
in the Ottawa District £200. Total, £6,000, or |24,0C0.
It
uld
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nada
the
and
and
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 385
character and capacity of any person willing to become a
teacher" and appoint him. The trustees were also author-
ized to make rules and regulations for their own schools;
and to select text-books from a list prescribed by a district
Board of Education, to which they were required to report.
The provincial allowance to each school was in no case to
exceed X25 — the balance of salary and contingent expenses
to be made up by subscriptions. No rate-bills or assess-
ments were authorized. This law was considered only as
an experiment, and its operation was limited to four
years.
Thus, in hesitation and doubt, were sown the seeds of
intellectual life and vigor in Upper Canada, which, though
unproductive for a time, and even nearly uprooted for a
time by chilling frosts and wild popular commotions, have,
by renewed care and culture, been developed into more than
4,000 schools with almost $1,000,000 of self-imposed taxa-
tion for their maintenance.
At the expiration of the four years, it was obvious that
either the law of 1816 did not produce satisfactory fruit, or
men of narrower minds controlled our public affairs ; for, in
1820, another act was passed, reducing the legislative grant
from $2-4,000 to $10,000 per annum, making a uniform
grant of $1,000 to each district, and reducing the teachers'
allowance from $100 to $50 per annum.
In regard to the state of education in Upper Canada in
1817, and the fluctuating character ofdts progress since the
settlement of the province, in 1784, up to that time, Mr.
Eobcrt Gourlay, a well-known Canadian politician and
author, writes as follows :
" There is no college in Upper Canada, but there are said
to be several townships of land set apart for the purpose
of endowing such an institution, when the population and
circumstances of the province shall require it.
"No provision is made by law for free schools. The in-
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386 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
!--(*i3
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habitants of the several townships are left to a voluntary
support of schools, according to their own discretion.
" An Act of the provincial legislature, in 1807, granted
a hundred pounds a year to the teacher of one school, in
each of the eight districts under the direction of trustees.
In some districts the school thus provided for is made a free
school ; but in other districts the salary is considered as a
public encouragement to a teacher of literary eminence, in
addition to the compensation received for the tuition of each
scholar. " The act was limited to four years, within which
period the limitation was repealed, so that it is now a per-
petual law. From the extent of the districts, the location
of the schools, and other considerations, the school act has
proved not very satisfactory, and a repeal of it has been re-
peatedly attempted. Such dissatisfaction and attempts to
procure a repeal, may have lessened the ability of these
schools. Several of them, however, are flourishing and
highly respectable.
" Other seminaries for the education of youth are sup
ported by individual exertions, without public aid.
"The first inhabitants, as was stated in the historical
sketch, were generally poor, in consequence of the revolu-
tion. They had also to struggle with the labors and priva-
tions incident to new settlements. As their habitations were
sparse, it was difficult for them to unite in sufficient num-
bers to form good schools ; and they could neither afford
much expense for instructors, nor allow their children much
time for receiving instruction. From such inevitable causes,
education was neglected among them until the neglect almost
became habitual. The want of books, at ^ ae same time, re-
laxed their taste for reading.
" A sense of these disadvantages excited desires for sur-
mounting them, which have at length produced some cor-
responding exertion. Books are procured in considerable
numbers. In addition to those with which particular per-
il 1
fjfl{
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 387
sons and families are supplied, social libraries are i: Produced
in various places; and subscribers at a small expense thus
enjoy the benefit of many more volumes than they could
individually afford to purchase.
" A spirit of improvement is evidently spreading. The
value of education, as well as the want of it, is felt. The
practicability of obtaining it is considered. Gentlemen of
competent means appear to be sensible of the importance
of giving their children academical learning, and ambitious
to do it without sending them abroad for the purpose.
"Among other indications of the progress of literary am.
bition, I can not forbear referring to the academy lately
erected in Ernest Town, by the subscriptions of public-
spirited inhabitants of that and the neighboring townships,
who appear to be convinced that the cultivation of liberal
arts and sciences is naturally connected with an improve-
ment of manners and morals, and a general melioration of
the state of society." *
As to the state of feeling in the rural parts of the oldest
settled portions of Upper Canada, we make the following ex-
tracts from a letter written to Mr. Gourlay from the town-
ship of Grimsby, in 1818, by a highly respected resident,
AVilliam Crooks, Esq. Mr. Crooks remarks :
" The state of education is at a very low ebb, not only
in the township, but generally throughout the [Niagara]
district ; although the liberality of the legislature has been
great in support of the district schools, (giving to the
teachers of each £100 per annum,) yet they have been pro-
ductive of little or no good hitherto, for this obvious cause,
* " Such was the prospect when the war oomnienced, but it is changed. Tlio
academy was converted into a barrack ; and the academical institution has nut
been revived. The students resorted to other places of education, many of them
out of the province. The building is now occupied as a house of pub''o worship,
and a common school. It is to be hoped, however, that the taste for literary
improvement may be revived, and this seminary be re-established." Statis-
tical Accouiii of Upper Canada, &c. By Robert Grourlay. 2vols. Loudon,
1822.
25
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388 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
they are looked upon as seminaries exclusively instituted
for the education of the children of the more wealthy classes
of society, and to which the poor man's child is considered
as unfit to be admitted. From such causes, instead of their
being a benefit to the province, they are sunk into obscuri-
ty, and the heads of most of them are at this moment
enjoying their situations as comfortable sinecures. An-
other class of schools has, within a short time, been like-
wise founded upon the liberality of the legislative purse, de-
nominated common or parish schools, but like the preceding,
the anxiety of the teacher employed, seems more alive to
his stipend than the advancement of the education of those
placed under his care : from the pecuniary advantages thus
held out, we have been inundated with the worthless scum,
under the character of schoolmasters, not only of this, but
of every other country where the knowledge has been pro-
mulgated, of the easy means our laws afford of getting a
living here, by obtaining a parish school, which is done upon
the recommendation of some few freeholders, getting his
salary from the public, and making bis employers contribute
handsomely beside.
"It is true, rules are laid down for their government, and
the proper books prescribed for their use ; but scarcely in
one case in ten are they adhered to, for in the same class
you will frequently see one child with Noah Webster's
spelling-book in his hand, and the next with Lindley Mur-
ray's. However prone the teachers are to variety in their
schools, much blame is to be attributed to the trustees, who
are in many instances too careless, and I might almost add
too ignorant to discriminate right from wrong, in the trust
they have undertaken for the public benefit. It is therefore
not to be wondered at why the parish school system should
meet with almost universal reprobation from most discern-
ing men.
" Of these parish schools, we are burdened with a liberal
share having no less than three of them. If the establish
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 389
m
ish
ment of this system was meant by the legislature to abbre-
viate the present enormous price of education, they have
been miserably deceived ; for I can see no alteration or re-
duction from the charge made before the passing of the act
The price then was 12s. 6d. [i. e. $2,50,] and is now the
same, per quarter."*
In 1819, the Executive Council, on corsidering the Duke
of Portland's dispatch of 1797, recommended that 500,000
acres of land be disposed of for the purpose of establishing
a University in Upper Canada. The members of the Coun-
cil thought thit £10,000 would be required for the erec-
tion of *' a suitable building and provide a library, philo-
sophical apparatus and a botanic garden," with £4,060 per
annum for " salaries, scholarships and contingencies."
In July, 1819, provision was made for an additional gram-
mar school ; for holding annual public examinations ; for
reporting the condition of the school to the governor, and for
educating ten common school pupils, free of charge, at each
of the nine public grammar schools already established ;
but the provincial allowance to teachers of grammar schools
was reduced to £50 in all cases where the numbers of pupils
did not exceed ten.
Thus ebbed and flowed, without a master hand to stay the
current, that tide which in other lands is regarded as the
nation's life's blood ; and thus was permitted to ensue that
state of living death by which Upper Canada, in the signifi-
cant and popular metaphor of the day, was likened to a
'girdled tree,' destitute alike of life, of beauty, or of stately
growth.
* In 1818, Mr. Gourlcy reports the names of the grammar school masters in
Upper Canada as follows : Johnstown District, Rev. John Bethune, (now dean and
rector of Christ Church Cathedral, Montreal ;) Midland District, Rev. John Wil-
son ; no7ne District, Rev. Dr. Strachan, (now Bishop of Toronto ;) Niagara Dis'
trict, Rev. John Burns, (father of the late Hon. Judge Burns;) London Dis
trict, Mr, .James Mitchell, (subsequently Judge of the District Court;) Western
District, Mr. Merrill ; Eastern and Newcastle Districts, vaca:it. — Statistical Ac
count of Upper Canada, tfcc, Vol. II., Appendix xciv.
390 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
CHAPTER IV.
V ^i.ilH
H%
FITFUL PROGRESS FROM 1822—1836.
In 1822, Sir Peregrine Maitland, the lieutenant-governor
of Upper Canada, submitted to the Imperial government a
plan for organizing a general system of educrtion for the
province, including elementary schools; and, in 1823,
he obtained permission from England to establish a
Board of Education for the general superintendence of this
system of education, and for the management of the uni-
versity and school lands throughout the province. This
Board prepared some general regulations in regard to the
schools, an \ proposed a plan by which to exchange 225,-
944 acres of the less valuable of the school lands for the
more productive Clergy Reserve lands. The plan having
been approved of by the home Government, was carried into
effect by the Governor soon after. In 1824, the first at-
tempts towards providing the public with general reading
books, in connection with the common and Sunday schools,
were maae. The sum of £150 was annually appropriated
for this object, and authorized to be expended by the Pro-
vincial Board of Education in the purchase of " books and
tracts designed to afford moral and religious instruction."
These books and tracts were intended for equal distribution
throughout all the districts of Upper Canada.
Thus were presented the dim outlines of a system of pub-
lic instruction, which it was clear the necessities of the coun-
try required, bat which for want of a vigorous and system-
jilic departmental supervision was gradually permitted to lan-
guish. The educational legislative enactments themselves
were suffered to become; almost obsolete on the statute book.
In these fitful efforts may be traced the noble instincts of
the province to possess herself of an invaluable palladium
of civil and religious freedom, but which the apathy or
selfishness of her sons alone presented her from acquiring.
il
Jj
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 391
We honour her even in her failures, while we learn a
valuable lesson from her history : that to entrust the cause
of education to the chance of political strife or to the guid-
ance of self-interest r aimless counsels is to doom it to ship-
wreck and destruction.
In January, 1824, the Common School Act was made to
Apply "to all schools that are now or luay hereafter bo
established and kept among the Indians wh*) shall be resi-
dent within the limits of any organized councy or township
within this province excepting such schools as shall or 'tay
be otherwise provided for."* Provision was also made this
year for the examinatir"" of common school teachers by
county Boards of Education.
In March, 1827, Sir Peregrine Maitland obtained a charter
for King's College, Toronto. In transmitting the charter,
Lord Bathurst proposed to endow the University, as follows:
" I am further to acquaint you that His Majesty has been
pleased to grant, £1,000 per annum as a fund for erecting
the buildings necessary for the college, to be paid out of the
moneys furnished by the Canada company and to continue
during the term of that agreement.
" I have to authorize you, on receipt of this dispatch, to
exchange such Crown Reserves as have not been made over
to the Canada Company for an equal portion of the lands
set apart for the purpose of education and foundation of
a University, as suggested in your dispatch of the 19th
December, 1825, and more fully detailed in Dr. Strachan's
Keport of the 10th March, 1826 ; and you will proceed to
endow King's College with the said Crown Ecserves with
as little delay as possible "
Objections having been made in Upper Canada to the
charter of King's College as too exclusive, a committee of
the House of Commons, in 1828, recommended the appoint-
ment in it of a theological professor each for the established
* All the Indian schools of tho province, which are sustainod by various
religious bodies, are chiefly under the control of the Indian Department.
The mnnnfljement of the Indian lands is vested in the Crown Lands Department.
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392 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
churches of England and Scotland. This recommendation
was, however, not acted upon.
In 1829, Sir John Colborue, (now Lord Seaton,) superse-
ded the Eoyal Grammar, or District School, at York, now
Toronto, bj an institution which he named Upper Canada
College. He obtained for it, from Ilis Majesty's Govern-
ment, an endowment of 66,000 acres of school land, besides
some town lots. On the 4th January, 1830, this college was
formally opened. See Part Second, chapter iii.
In 1828 — 9, the Wesleyan Methodists took active steps
to establish an Academy for the superior education of pupils
of both sexes; and in June, 1880, the Wesleyan Conference
appointed a committee to collect subscriptions and to
select a site for the proposed academy.
In 1831, a committee of the House of Assembly recom-
mended that £4,400 per annum be granted for the support
of the eleven free grammar schools, or respectable semin-
aries [to be " incorporated with the present district schools"]
where the youth of the province generally might receive a
liberal education, without being removed many hundred
miles from the tender care and watchful authority of their
parents." The committee was also opposed to the endow-
ment of " King's College, or any other extensive university
which can only be viewed as of benefit to those whose wealth
enables them to bear the great expense of sending thdr chil-
dren to the capital of the province ;" but it recommended
that £2,000 be set apart for the annual support of a provin-
cial seminary at York, "whether called Upper Canada Col-
lege, or by any other name." They further recommended
that £50 be annually granted to establish a school in each of
the 132 townahijis of Upper Canada, (being 12 schools in a
district,) and thus give to Upper Canada a system of edu-
cation that might well be envied by any other colony in His
Majesty's dominions." The report was partially acted upon
in 1839. See page 394.
In November, 1831, Lord Goderich, in a dispatch, pro
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 393
posed that the King's College charter be surrendered, with
a view to its modiucation.
Ill 1832, the functions of the Upper Canada Board of
Education ceased ; and the school lands under its manage-
ment were reinvested in the Crown, with a view to having
the proceeds of their sale annually applied as might be di-
rected by the legislature. In the same year, £7,000 having
been collected by authority of the Wesleyan Conference, the
site was selected for the proposed Upper Canada Academy
at Cobourg, and the building commenced. On the 18th of
June, 1836, the Academy was opened ; and in October of
that year a Royal Charter was obtained for it, through the
exertions of the Rev. Dr. Ryerson.*
Dr. Thomas Rolph, who travelled in Upper Canada in
1832 — 3, thus refers to the state of the schools at that time.
He says : " It is really melancholy to traverse the province,
and go into many of the common schools; you find a herd
of children, instructed by some anti-British adventurer, in-
stilling into the young and tender mind sentiments hostile
to the parent state ;f false accounts of the late war in which
* Tlie Rev. Egerton Ryerson, D. D., LL. D., is a younger son of the late
Colonel Joseph Ryerson, (a United Empire Loyalist, of New Jersey, who
came from New Brunswick in 1793.) He was born in Charlotteville, county
of Norfolk, ITppiT Canafla, in 1803 ; entered tlie Wesleyan ministry in 1825 ;
was editor of the Christian Guardian (which he established) in 1829 ; Principal
of Victoria College (Cobourg) in 1841 ; appointed Chief Superintendent of lidu-
cation for Upper Canada iu 1844 ; made a tour of inquiry Ui Europe in 1844 — 5 ;
and founded the present system of i>ublio instruction in Upper Canada in
184G— 53.
T It may be proper to remark hero that it was not until 1846 that a chock
was put upon this abuse of public confidence on the part of American or
Americai'ized teaohers. In the Upper Canada con.'non sch<^)l law of 1850
it is provided that " no foreign book in the English branihes can be used in
any model or common schools without the express permission of Council of Publio
Inciruetion." Foreign teachers were also required by the scIkh)! Acts of 1843
ajd 1850 to take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty before they could receive
a certificate of qualification irom the County Board of Public Instruction.
These restrictive provisions of the school law are thus justified by the Rev. Dr.
w
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394 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPEH CANADA.
Great Britain was engaged with the United States , geogra-
phy setting forth New York, Philadelphia, Boston, &e., as
the largest and finest cities in the world ; historical reading
books, describing the American population as the most free
and enlightened under heaven ; insisting on the superiority
of their laws and institutions, to those of all the world, in de-
fiance of the agrarian outrages and mob supremacy daily
witnessed and lamented; and American speUing-books,
dictionaries, and grammar,, teaching them an anti-British dia-
lect, and idiom; although living in a province, and being
subjects, of the British ciown."* Pp. 262, Appendix.f
Ryerson in his special Report to the Legislatuie in 1847 : " I thinlc that less evil
arises from the employment of American teachers tlian from the use of Ameri-
can text-books. * * * * i< Whatever may bo thought of the wisilotn or ex-
pediency of restricting Icg'il certificates of qualification to natural born or nat-
uralized Briti!<h subjects, I believe public sentiment is ngainst its repeal, and in
favor of havi'igthe youth of the country taught by our own follovv-sabjects, as
well as out of our own books. * * * In regard to the exclusion of American
books from the schwls, I have explained that it is nc t becaust tiiey aio foreign
books sin)ply that they are excluded, but because they are, witl. very few ex-
ceptions, anti-British, in every sense of tlii. word. They are unlike tlie school
books (I any other enlightened nr.iion, so far as I have the means of know-
ing. The Bi'hool bcoks of Germany, Fra:ice and Gieat Britain contain noth-
ing hostile to the institutions or derogc .ory to the character of any other no-
tion. * * * Vmerican school books, with very f'.w exceptions, abound in state-
ments iiiid allusions prejudicial to the institutioiis of the Brit.jh nntion," &o.
* Observations made during a Viait, tLc, together with, a Statistical Account
of Upper Canada — By Dr. Thomas Rolpl;, Anoaster, Ciore District, Upper
Canada. Dundas, 1836.
+ Dr. Ilolph, in his observations, states that there was in Preseott, aJ the
time of liis visit, 1832 — 3, "a very elegant stone building erected by the
Catholic clergyman, the Rev. J. W. Champion, and denominated theOrcnville
College, [Prescolt bemg in the county of Clrenville] 84 feet in length, wi'h two
wings, one at either end 40 feet each in length. * * * When Grenvillo College
comes into active opirnuon it will afford a finished education. In connection
with this college or establishment tli'Te will be a library for general circula-
tion, which will be bought at the public expense, the proprietor supplying »j
number of misecllaufciouB works: the j)roci eds of the library will be appropria-
ted t« the c' thing of poor children who will be ingtruoiod jjratuitously in the
college." [We beliove thene bxpeeti.tiors were never reali?f'i< — the college not
having gone into ofierutii^i.] — liolphs Observations,^^ «fco., pp. 148, 149.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 395
In 1835, the Hon. and Right Reverend Bishop McDonell
gave as a legacy by will, four acres of land to a projected
Roman Catholic College, to be named St. Raphaels, and to
be established in the County of Glengarry. The site of the
College was afterwards removed to Kingston. In 1837,
the institution was incorporated as Regiopolis College ; but
it was not until 1845 that an act was passed authorizing
the Trustees under the will to convey the Bishop's legacy to
the College corporation. In the following year the col-
lege was formally opened.
In the public accounts of Upper Canada, the expenditure
for public schools from 1832 to 1836, is given as follows :
Year. Common Schools. District Schools. Total.
1832, $ 9,600 $4,000 $1.3,600
18.3.% 36,200 3,861 39,061
1834, 31,400 3,981 35,381
1835, 33,800 4.545 38,345
1836, 35,800 4,559 40,359
CHAPTER V.
PARLIAMENTARY INQUIRY AND ITS RESULTS, 1836—1843.
In ] 836, another spasmodic effort v/as made to revive the
dying spirit of education in the province, and a commission
was appointed by the legislature to examine the systems
of public instruction in operation in the United States, and to
report the result. Dr. Charles Duncombe, (a member of the
provincial paiiiament,) the gentleman deputed on behalf of
the three commissioners (Prs. Duncombe, T. D. Morrison
and T. Bru:'e,) to perform this labor, visited various States
of the Union, and ijmbodied the result of his investiga-
tions in the form of an elaborate Report, accompanied by
an ample corrobo.adve appendix, and a voluminous bill,
wliich he drafted with great care, and in which he proposed
to grant $60,000 per annum in aid of common schools.
II
H,.
896 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
As a matter of curiosity and history, it may be interest*
ing to give one or two extracts from Dr. Dunscombe's Re-
port, in which he expresses his opinion of the American
systems of public instruction in 1836. Dr. Buncombe was
an active, intelligent man, and from his strong liberal views
and personal history, must be regarded as an impartial wit-
ness in regard to American institutions. He says (page 11) :
" In the United States, where they devote much time and
expense towards the promotion of literature, they are
equally destitute of a system of national education, with
ourselves ; and, although, by their greater exertion to im-
port the improvements made in Great Britain, and on the
continent, and their numerous attempts at systematizing
these modern modes of education so as to lay the founda-
tion for a future perfect system of education adapted to the
institutions of the country, they have placed themselves in
advance of us in their common school system, yet, after all,
their schools seemed to me to be good schools upon bad or
imperfect systems. They seem groping in the dark; no in-
struction in the past to guide the future, no beacon light,
no counsel of wise men to guide them, more than we have,
upon the subject of common schools." Page 11.
" In the United States, so far as I have witnessed and am
capable of judging, their common school systems are as de-
fective as our own. They have, according to their public
documents, about 80,000 common school teachers, but very
few of whom have made any preparation for their duties;
the most of them assume tlieir office as a temporary employ-
ment." Page 63.
That the Canadian system of popular instruction was
equally inefficient, was fully admitted ; and Dr. Duncombe
has recorded the historical fact in the preamble to the bill
which he proposed for the adoption of the legislature. The
labors, however, of Dr. Duncombe were productive of no
immediate results.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CA,NADA.
397
The charter of King's College University liaving been
deemed too exclusive in its character to be generally accepta-
ble, the legislature petitioned the king to amend it. In re-
ply, His Majesty's Government authorized the provincial
legislature to do so. After much discussion a bill amend-
ing the charter and incorporating Upper Canada College
with the University was passed on the 4th of March, 1837,
and soon afterwards received Her Majesty's assent.
In May, 1839, the legislature passed an Act converting
the district schools into grammar schools; providing for
the appointment by the Government of five trustees for
each ; applying a portion of the university endowment
to their support ; and setting apart 250,000 acres of crown
lands as a permanent endowment of these schools. The Act
also appropriated not less than one half the revenues of the
proposed King's College to the support of Upper Canada
College until the University would be established £200
were also applied to the erection of a grammar school in
each district, provided an equal sum was raised by sub-
scription among the inhabitants, and provided the buildings
thus erected were permanently insured. The Act further
provided for the payment of £100 to each of four other
grammar schools which might be established in towns or
villages not nearer than six miles from the county town, and
at which not less than sixty scholars were educated.
In 1840, the Presbyterians, in connection with the Ghurcb
of Scotland, wishing to establish a theological and literary
college at Kingston, obtained an Act of incorporation for
it from the provincial legislature. The Governor General
reserved the Act for the signification of Ilcr Majesty's
pleasure thereon ; but in the following year, (1841,) the
Queen granted a Koyal Charter erecting the institution into
the " University of Queen's College, at Kingston." Two
faculties were immediately afterwards organized, viz. Theo-
logy and Arts. The faculty of Medicine was added in 1854,
and that of Law in 1861. See Part ■ lecond, chapter v., vi.
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398 HISTOlllCAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPEK CANADA.
In 1840, the Congregationalists established a Theological
Institute at Toronto. In 1843, a similar institutioM was es-
tablished at Montreal ; but in 1846 it was removed to To-
ronto and amalgamated with the institution there. In 18G0,
the Congregational College of Nova Scotia was also absorb-
ed in the Toronto Institution, and the name of the new
estabhrihment changed to Iwat of the Congregational Collego
of British North America. In the same year (1840,) the
United Presbyterians opened a Divinity Hall at London, U.
C. In 1841 it Vas formally recognized by the synod ; in
1849 it was removed to Toronto, and in 1861 it was merged
in Knox College, Toronto. (See next page.)
The eventful crisis of 1887, by which the political hori-
zon was overcast, and Canada was plunged into civil war,
prevented the consummation of the hopes which had been
anxiously entertained for the resuscitation of the common
school sj-stem. In 1839, the clouds of war and tumult
had passed away, and in 1840, the provinces of Upper and
Lower Canada were united under one Legislature. In
1841, the first Parliament of United Canada passcti an Act
deflnitely establishing a system of popular education in
Upper and Lower Canada, and endowed it with an annual
Parliamentary grant of $200,000.
Thus was reached a great turning point in the somewhat
checkered educational history of Canada ; and, although the
effort was long and painful, the point once gained has never
been abandoned.
In 1841, Upper Canada Academy was converted into the
L^nivcrsity of Victoria College, under the Presidency of the
Eev. Dr. ilyerson, and received from the legislature an an-
nual grant of £500. The college was opened with one
faculty, that of Arts ; the faculty of Medicine was added in
1854, and that of Law in 1862. See Part Second, chap, v., vi.
In the same year, (1841,) the Society of Friends estab-
lished a seminary for both sexes on a farm of one hundred
acres near Piuton, in Prince Edward county.
m
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 399
In 1841 — 2, a Diocesan Theological School for the Church
of England was established at Cobourg by the Lord Bishop
of Toronto. In 1852 it was merged into Trinity College,
Toronto. See PjirJ, Second, chapters v., vi.
In April, 1842, the foundation stone of King's Coll^qi_
was laid, with appropriate ceremonies, by Ilis Excclkncjj;^
Sir Charles Bagot, Chancellor of the University. In June,
1843, the University was formally opened under the
Presidency of the Eight Eeverend Bishop Strachan. In
1842, the library of the University was first formed. In
1854, the number of volumes in the library had increased
to 5,000 ; in 1861 to 15,000.
In 1843, an effort was made to unite or affiliate King's
College, Toronto, with Queen's College, Kingston, but the
project failed ; and with its failure commenced a systematic
agitation of the claims of all denominations to participate
equally in the benefits of King's College.
In 1843, another school law, applicable to Upper Canada
alone, was passed; and the Act of 1841, so far as it re-
lated to Upper Canada, repealed.
In 1844, Knox' Theological College was established, by
the (Free) Presbyterian Church of Canada, but its charter
was not obtained until 1858. See Part Second, chapter v.
CHAPTER VI.
IMPROVEMENT, CHANGE, AND PROGRESS, FROM 1S44— 1853
In 1844, His Excellency the Governor General appointed
the Eeverend Dr. Eyerson (the present head of the depart-
nent) to be Superintendent of Schools for Upper Canada.
Dr. Eyerson specially set himself to reconstruct, upon a
broader and more enduring foundation, the entire system
of public elementary instruction in Upper Canala. As
a preliminary step, he devoted a year to the examination
M.|^H|4|lV t
400 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
and comparison of the systems of education in Europe and
America, and embodied the results in an elaborate " Re-
port on a System of Public Instruction for Upper Canada."
In 184:7, a bill providing for the establishment of common
schools in the cities and towns of Upper Canada, was pre-
pared by the Superintendent of Education, and received
the sanction of the legislature.
Shortly after the organization of the common school sys-
tem, and as a necessary part of it, a normal school for Upper
Canada, was established at Toronto in November, 1847.
In 1848, St. Joseph's College was established at Bytown,
now the city of Ottawa, by the Right Rev. Dr. Guigues, first
Roman Catholic Bishop of Ottawa. See pages 435-6.
The agitation against the constitution of King's College
having continued unabated, the Hon. Robert Baldwin (then
Attorney-General for Upper Canada) introduced into the
legislature, in 1849, an elaborate bill, designed to place the
institution on a more satisfactory footing, — to abolish the
remaining provisions of the Royal Charter, and to change
the name of King's College to that of the University of
Toronto. The bill soon afterwards became a law.
During the three years which followed the passing of the
Common School Act of 1846, it was subjected to a good
deal of unfriendly criticism, which resulted, in 1849, in the
hasty passage of a new Act, entirely repealing the former
one. This new Act was, however, upon examination pro-
nounced to be ill adapted to promote the educational in-
terests of the country, and, upon the recommendation of the
Chief Superintendent of Education, its operation was vir-
tually suspended.
In 1850, the whole system of popular education under-
went a thorough revision, and a comprehensive draft of bill
on the subject was submitted to the Government by the
Chief Superintendent. This bill was concurred in by the
legislature, and became law in Ju:^e of that year. It still
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 401
forms the basis of the present common school system of Up-
per Canada. See Part Second, chapter i.
Tlie Chair of Divinity having been abolished, and other
changes having been made in the University of Toronto un-
acceptable to the Bishop and other members of the Church
of England, the venerable prelate (althougli in his 72d year,)
vigorously set about the establishment of an exclusively
Church of England University. In this he was eminently
successful ; and having, in 1850, secured an act of incorpora-
tion for it from the Canadian legislature, he obtained, in
1851, a Royal Charter from the Queen for the University
of Trinity College, at Toronto. The institution was formally
opened in 1852, and the Diocesan Theological School at
Cobourg merged in it. See Part Second, chapters v., vi.
In the same year, (1852,) St. Michael's College was estab-
lished at Toronto, by some clergymen of the order of St.
Basil, under the patronage of the Right Reverend Doctor
de Charbonell, Second Roman Catholic Bishop of the
diocese. See Part Second, chapter v.
In 1853, some valuable improvements were made in the
details of the Common school system. After having been
discussed at various county school conventions, which were
held by the Chief Superintendent of Education, these im-
provements were embodied in a supplementary school bill,
and in that form received the sanction of the legislature.
CHAPTER VII.
HIGHER AND INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, ETC., 1853—1861.
In the year 18c3, an important change was made by the
legislature in the constitution of the University of To
ronto. In 18*49, the faculty of Divinity was abolished—
in 1853 the faculties of Law and Medicine were also abolish
ed, and the lectures discontinued. By the Hon. Mr.
Hincks' bill, which became law this year, the fun' ' ; of
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402 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
the University were separated from those of the College, qnd
two separate and distinct institutions were established. Uni-
versity College became a teaching institution for the re-
maining faculty of Arts ; while the University of Toronto
became solely an examining body in each of the faculties
of Arts, Law and Medicine. The Senate prescribed the
University course and appointed the University examiners.
The intention was to model the institution after the design
of the London University, and to constitute it a sole Uni-
versity for Upper Canada, having the various colleges in the
country affiliated with it as teaching institutions. There
having been no permanent endowment provided for these
various colleges, and they have continued up to the present
day, separate and independent universities, with power to
grant degrees in the several faculties, without reference to a
common university standard. See Part Second, chap, v., vi.
The Grammar schools, which were fiist established in Up-
per Canada in 1807, were suffered to remain in a very un-
satisfactory state until 1853. In that year an improvement
in their condition was effected by the Chief Superintendent
of Education, who prepared a draft of Bill for their entire
reorganization and management. Owing, however, to a re-
pugnance on the part of some members of the Legislature
to assimilate the financial principles of the Grammar and
Common School Acts, and thus to impose upon the muni-
cipalities the duty of imposing a tax at least equal ia
amount to tliat of the legislative grant to Grammar schools,
the objects of the bill were partially defeated ; and the an-
ticipated improvement in the condition of these schools did
not reach the point aimed .at by the Chief Superintendent
in the bill. Further legislation is, therefore, rendcreid neces-
sary in order to make the Grammar schools more efficient as
superior commercial or classical schools. See Part Second,
chapter iii.
In ISlo — (), L'Aasomption College was estat)lished at
■'ire
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HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 403
Sandwich, by the Jesuit fathers, but was afterwards trans-
ferred to members of the Benedictine Order, who conducted
it under the auspices of the Eight Reverend Doctor Pinson-
cault, first Roman Catholic Bishop of the diocese.
In 1857, the Methodist Episcopal Church in Upper Cana-
da succeeded, mainly through the exertions of the Rev. J. II.
Johnson, in establishing a seminary at Belleville for the
education of males and females. Extensive buildings were
erected, and the seminary soon went into active operation.
The same yeav witnessed the establishment, at Woodstock,
(in the county c»f Oxford,) by the Baptists of Upper Canada,
of the Canadian Literary Institute, for the superior educa-
tion of males and females. See also Part Second, chap. v.
In 1858, chiefly through the aid of private benevolence,
p. school for the education of the Deaf and Dumb was com-
menced in Toronto by Mr. J. B. McGann. It has accom-
plished much good, and has received the countenance and
support of the public. See Part Second, chapter vii.
In 1858, the Model Grammar School for Upper Canada
was opened at Toronto. This institution is designed as a
model for the other Grammar Schools of Upper Canada, and
also as a Training School for Masters of Grammar Schools.
In 1858, the Senate of the University of Toronto, with
the sanction of His Excellency the Governor-General, Sir
Edmund Head, authorized the erection of the handsome
buildings in University Park for the purposes of the Uni-
versity, and of University College.
Although ample public provision had been made for the
superior education of males in the Grammar schools and
the Universities, no corresponding legislative provision has
yet been made for the superior education of females. Their
separate elementary education is amply provided for unjler
the Common School Act, (although this provision of the
law is acted upon to a very limited extent,)^ and they may,
* Rural scho '1 trustees nre authorizcfl to estalilish, with the onriourronco of
the local Buperinteinleiit, a sccon J or fuinale school in each section ; and in
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404 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
and do, receive instruction witk boys in many of the Gram-
mar schools ; but up to this time private enterprise alone has
provided for the superior education of females. The Meth-
odists, Roman Catholics and Baptists, as separate communi-
ties, have sought to supply this defect in our higher educa-
tional system. Under the auspices of the Methodists, facili-
ties for higher female education existed at Cobourg from
1883 until 1844. The Methodists now enjoy the same
advantages at Belleville and at Hamilton, the Eoman Catho-
lics at Kingston, Belleville, Toronto, Guelph, London, &c.,
and the Baptists at Woodstock. A Wesleyan Female
College was established at Dundas, but in "x861 it
was merged in a more extensive establishment at Hamil-
ton, which is now in successful operation. There are also
some very superior ladies' private schools in the cities, and
in several of the towns of Upper Canada.
In October, 1859, the ceremony of placing the cope-stone
on the new buildings of the University of Toronto and
University College was performed by His Excellency, Sir
Edmund Head, visitor of the University. Early in 1860,
the institution was formally opened.
In compliance with the prayer of numerous petitions,
asking for an inquiry into the expenditures and educational
standard of the University of Toronto and University Col-
lege, a committee of the legislature was appointed in 1860 to
take evidence on the subject; and in 1861 a commission was
issued by His Excellency the Governor-General, to inquire
further into the matter. This commission consisted of the
vice-chancellor of the Toronto University, and a represent-
ative from each of the Universities of Victoria and Queen's
Colleges, with the bursar of the Toronto University and
Colleges as their secretary. The commissioners have made
cities, towns and villages the Board of School Trustees is authorized " to deter-
mine the number, sites, kind and description of schools [i, e. for boys, girls, color-
ed children ; high so'iools, &c.] to be CBtablishcd and maintained in each city,
town or village,"
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUUATION IN UPPER CANADA, 405
a comprehensive Report on the subject. The Senate has
also unanimously agreed upon a scheme of affiliation, which
is embodied in the Report. The Commissioners recommend :
"/Ssnafe. — That the Senate be reconstituted, and consist for
the future of a fixed number; viz., first. The heads of
affiliated colleges ; second, One member from each affiliated
college, elected by the corporation thereof; and, third, The
remaining one-third appointed by government.
"2. That the elected members continue in office five years,
and be eligible for re-election.
" 3. That an annual meeting be held in rotation at the
seats of the various colleges, and that the other meetings be
held at any place deemed most convenient by the Senate.
" 4. That the Senate have control of the bursar's office.
"5. That the offices of chancellor and vice-chancellor be
continued, — the former to be appointed by government; the
vice-chancellor, as at present, to be elected by the Senate.
" 6. That no scholarships be founded by the Senate; but
that a sum not exceeding $1,000 be annually appropriated
for competition at a general examination of all affiliated
college students, the successful competitors being distin-
guished as " honor men."
" 7. That the name be changed to the University of Upper
Canada and University College to King's College, Toronto.
"8. That the library and museums be regarded as belong
ing to King's College, Toronto.
" 9. The Senate make annual returns to the government.
*' 10. The Senate shall have power to establish a common
curriculum of study for all affiliated colleges.
"11. That the Senate shall appoint examiners, and provide
for payment of same.
" 12. That the Senate have power to provide for the actual
expenses of its members while attending its sessions.
^^ Affiliated Colleges. — 1. That the affiliated colleges be the
chartered colleges which come within tho rec^uirements of
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400 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
the act, provided each, of them accepts the conditions which
may be hereafter imposed.
" 2. That the affiliated colleges with university powers
confer no degrees in arts, except on such students as have
passed Jin examinatioi> by examiners appointed by the
Senate of the University of Upper Canada, and that the
claim to all public aid be forfeited if this condition is
violated.
"3. That all students who have passed the examination of
the Senate and graduated in their respective colleges, shall
be entitled to rank as graduates of the University of Upper
Canada.
"4. That the university examinations of candidates shall
be held in the respective colleges, where also the degrees
shall be conferred.
" 5. That in the case of King's College, the till shall pro-
vide that corporate powers be conferred upon this institu-
tion with provision for the appointment of professors,
regulation of salaries, expenditure, &c. ; and for conferring
degrees in all the faculties, subject to the same conditions
as in the case of the other incorporated affiliated colleges.
Also, that the necessary powers for conferring degree" be
provided in the case of Eegiopolis College, Kingston.
"6. That no degree shall be conferred on any candidate
who has not passed through a course of study and attend-
ance in some affiliated college, prescribed by the Senate of
the University of Upper Canada.
"7. That the apportionment of public funds to the affili-
atv.O. colleges be fixed and equal, except in the case of
King's College, and that Kin<y's College have an annual ap-
propriation from the general income fund not exceeding
$28,000.
" 8. That $500 be allowed to each college for scholarships,
or prizes, to be awarded by competitive college examination,
as in the case of the Queen's Colleges, Ireland.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 407
"9. That each college shall annually furnish to government
a detailed statement of its income and expenditure.
" 10. That the University of Upper Canada shall confer
no degrees excepting through the affiliated colleges.
" 11. That the Senate shall have a right to accommodation
at each affiliated college.
"12. That religiousdenominationsand private individuals
shall have power to found scholarships at each of the affili-
ated colleges, with such regulations as may receive the
sanction of the governing body in each.
13. That the library and museums of the Toronto Uni-
versity be transferred to and become the property of
King's College, Toronto; and, in consideration of the very
great advantages thereby confei red, each of the other affili-
ated colleges should receive a liberal grant for founding or
enlarging a liVrary and museum, irrespective of any annual
appropriation."
His Royal Highness the Prince of "Wales, when on his
tour in Canada, in the autumn of 1860, visited all the prin-
cipal educational institutions of the province. On leaving
the country he made a donation of $800 to each of them.
This money has in all cases, we believe, been invested, and
the proceeds applied to the establishment of an annual gold
medal, or other prize, in the several institutions which were
honored by the royal gift.
PART SECOND.
BCTMMART OF EACH CLASS OP EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
In the second part of this article, we propose to give a
separate sketch of the actual state and condition of the fol-
lowing classes of educational institutions, &c., in Upper
Canada, beginning, as we should naturally do, with the ele-
mentary school : —
t^ff
^^
V , 1 1'
i-t«=
408 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCA'iION IN UPPER CANADA.
Chapter I. — Pujulic Elementary Schools Receivinq
Legislative Aid.
1. Common Schools;
2. Roman Catholic Separate Schools;
3. Protestant Separate Schools;
4. Coloured Separate Schools.
Chapter II. — Public Elementary Schools not Receiv-
ing Legislative Aid.
1. Church of England Parochial Schools;
2. Private Schools for boys and girls;
3. Sunday Schools.
Chapter III. — Superior Schools Receiving Legisla-
tive Aid.
1. Upper Canada College and Model Grammar School ;
2. The County Grammar Schools.
Chapter IV. — Superior Schools not Receiving Legis-
lative Aid.
1. College Preparatory Schools;
2. Seminaries and Academies.
Chapter Y. — Professional Schools.
1. Of Thf^Mgy;
2. Of Law;
3. Of Medicine;
4. Of Teaching.
Chapter VI. — Universities.
Chapter VII. — Supplementary Elementary Educa-
tional Agencies.
1. Schools for Orphans;
2. Schools for the Deaf and Dumb;
3. Schools for Juvenile Criminals.
Chapter VIII. — Other Supplementary Educational
Agencies.
1. Mechanics^ Institutes j
2. Litei'ary Societies;
3. Libraries.
ff
h
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 409
CHAPTER I.
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS RECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID.
1. The Common Schools.
The chief features of the common school system of
Upper Canada are identical with those of other countries ;
but in its adaptation to the wants of the country and the
genius of the people, it is essentia^ Y Canadian.
Upper Canada is indebted, in a gi^a*- legree, to the State
of New York for the machinery of her common schools ;
to Massachusetts for the principle upon which they are sup-
ported ; to Ireland for the best complete series of common-
school books which have been published ; and to Germany
for her system of normal-school training. All, however, are
so blended and modified to suit the circumstances of the
country, that they are no longer exotic, but " racy of the soil."
Each city, town, township, and village has its own muni-
cipal council, and each city, town, village, and school
section has its own independent board of school trustees,
which is invested with extensive corporate powers. One is
supreme in civic affairs, while the other is not less so in all
matters pertaining to the schools. The one accepts, on be-
half of the rate-payers, the Legislative School Grant, and
imposes an assessment equivalent to the amount granted ;
while the other imposes any additional assessment required,
and controls the entire expenditure of the school moneys,
establishes school libraries, and promotes the general in
terests of the schools. In Upper Canada there are
42 Counties 5
5 Cities;
84 Towns and Incorporated Villages ; and
379 Townships, — or about
510 Munloipalitles in all.
There are also the same number of city, town, and village
school corporations, together with upwards of 4,000 school
gg^
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410
HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
corporations in the rural school sections. The schooifi are
inspected at least twice a year by local superintendents ap-
pointed by the county council. In cities, towns, and vidages
these officers are appointed, and their duties prescribed, by
the boards of trustees. Each local superintendent is re-
q"'red to deliver a school lecture in each section at least
once a year, in addition to his other duties. The judges,
magistrates, and other official persons specially named,
together with the clergy of the different religious persua-
sions in the country, are ex-q^c/o " school visitors," and are
authorized to visit the schools and aid with their counsel
and advice in promoting the great objects of popular edu-
cation. In each county there is also one or more boards of
public instruction for the examination and licensing of
teachers, composed of local superintendents and of the
trustees of county grammar schools.
As a central authority, and at the head of the whole sys-
tem, is a Council of Public Instruction and a Chief Super-
intendent of Education, both appointed by the Crown.
The council has the entire control of the normal and model
schools, prescribes the text-books for the public schools, the
reading books for the public school libraries, and the rules
and regulations for the government of both grammar and
common schools, for the examination of common-school
teachers, and the management of the public school libraries.
The Chief Superintendent of Education, as his name im-
plies, is the chief executive officer, and is appointed to
administer the laws relating to the public school system. Ho
is, ex-officio, a member of the Council of Public Instruction,
has the general superintendence of the normal and model
schools, an I prepares all the general regulations and reports
relating to the public schools, &c.
Such are the distinctive features of the system of common
school instruction in Upper Canada. In a few particulars
it differs essentially from any of the school systems in op-
1
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UI'PKU CANADA. 4ll
eration in Europe or the United States. It may, therefore,
be interesting to refer to these peculiarities in detail, as they
will thus throw light upon both the Canadian and American
systems as compared with the English and Irish systems.
1. The chief executive of the Canadian system is a non-
political and permanent officer. The success and efficiency
of the system is never, as in the United States, subjected,
year after year, to incessant change; nor is the executive
control of the system systematically risked at the polls or
ballot-box, where sound judgment and wise counsels do not
always prevail ; although the greatest care is taken to ad-
minister the system "in accordance with the well under-
stood wishes of the people." In fact, with the truest
appreciation of the great and fundamental objects of a
system of Christian and national education, designed to
affect every grade of society alike, the Canadian Legislature
has never yet permitted it to degenerate into a symbol of
strife, nor to be the subject of a partisan warfare. So noble
an instinct is worthy of a truly great people, and should be
recorded to their honor.
The Legislature of Canada has held that after certain
great principles have been once settled, it is but sound na-
tional policy to entrust to some enlightened and responsible
person, within certain restrictions, the important duty of
perfecting and keeping in continuous and active operation
the system of public instruction. These systems are not
built up in a day, any more than was the " Eternal City on
the seven hills." And the history of the present educational
structure of Upper Canada confirms this truth ; for, with all
the continuous aid which the Legislature has been able to
give, and the public to receive and appropriate, it has taken
at least ten years, under one guiding hand alone, to bring
the system of public instruction through the first stage of
its existence. The system is now young and vigorous, en-
dowed with capabilities and resources which are rarely
-«sa^
. . ;r;'
412 HISTuRICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
combined in other state systems of education; but had
Upper Canada adopted the course pursued elsewhere, we
feel persuaded that she would have been dooming herself
to a continued educational infancy, and the schools would
have been the subject of endless experiment and theory,—
without the guidance of that settled and permanent policy
which alone can develop and mature a great and compre-
hensive system.
2. The next essential difference arises from the entirely
voluntary or co-operative character of the municipal sup-
port of the Canadian system of public instruction. Not a
penny of tax is imposed by the Legislature for the sup})ort
of the schools; nor is the law compulsory upon a single mu-
nicipality of the province. It simply offers public aid on
condition than an equal amount be raised from local
sources, and that the statutory obligations annexed to the
grant be complied with. Thus, every county of the pro-
vince is left to exercise its own discretion as to whether it
will or will not accept the terms offered by the Legislature.
With a singular unanimity, every county of the province
has accepted those terms, although now and then an indi-
vidual township has declined them ; still, no penalty attaches
to such a step, except the loss of the grant which it would
otherwise receive. The question, then, of free schools or
of no schools, is left, where it properly belongs, to the pa-
triotism and good sense of the people themselves. They
thus feel that the entire responsibility of the question rests
with themselves, and that they have the sole authority to
decide it. Thus their self-respect and dignity are preserved ;
while the result has been most gratifying to every true
friend of local self-government and popular advancement.
3. The third essential difference will be found in the fol-
lowing extract from the Upper Canada school law: — " 7\nd
be it enacted, that no foreign books in the English branches
of education shall be used in any model or common school
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 413
without the express permission of the council of public in*
struction.'' This effectually relieves the educational system
of that greatest of all hindrances to its efficiency which
arises, as in the United States and in some respects in Eng-
land, from an endless variety of text-books in the schools,
and which renders any uniform standard of classification
impossible. It is certain that on no light grounds should
such power be reserved to the state; but like some of these
invaluable safeguards which must be thrown around even
the most equitable and evenly balanced systems of human
government, it was found to be absolutely necessary to im-
pose this salutary restriction on the eccentric tastes or mere
caprice which often governs parties in the selection of text-
books. Besides, although it was admitted that isolated
text-books might be found possessed of many superior ex-
cellencies in themselves, still, such books being written or
compiled without any connection with others of a series, or
uniformity of design, were felt to be serious hindrances
rather than helps in the process of instruction, as the inter-
mediate steps or links of a complete series were entirely
wanting, or but imperfectly supplied. The question was,
therefore, reduced to the simple one of whether an uniform
series of books, constructed with a view to the progressive
improvement of the scholar, and leading in complete and
easy steps from the mere elements of knowledge to the
higher branches of learning, should be prescribed; or
whether the schoolmaster should be compelled to gather a
confused variety of instruction from disconnected books, in
each of which the same ground might have to be gone over
again. The wisest course was therefore adopted; and an
uniform scries of text-books, based upon an intelligent sys-
tem of classification, was adopted and recommended for
general use in the schools. Not a single book in use was
proscribed; but by providing a better and cheaper descrip-
tion of text-books, the old ones gradually disappeared from
urn '
1 ,
! r
414 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
the schools aiid were replaced by those recommended. The
result has justified what was at first felt to be a delicate ex-
periment, though an imperative necessity; and the Irish
National series of text-books are now in universal use
throughout the province, at a cost far below what had hith-
erto been paid for a heterogeneous variety of inferior books,
incapable alike of classification or of limitation in number
and variety even in the same school.*
4. Intimately connected with the foregoing is the manner
in which library books have been selected for the public
schools. To the same central authority is entrusted the
difficult and delicate duty of recommending suitable reading
books for the public school libraries. The reasons "or this
course, although identical ir\ some respects with those which
apply .0 the selection of text-books, are yet in some impor-
tant particulars essentially different in .-heir character.
They were chiefly to prevent the introduction by skillful
vendors or from other sources, of unsuitable, immoral, irre-
ligious, or disloyal books.f The selection made by provin-
cial authority amounts to about 8,000 volumes, and em-
braces works in every department of human knowledge and
learning, including works on Christian Evidence and Nat-
ural Theology. From this extensive list, the local author-
ities are at liberty to make a selection, while new works of
value or interest are constantly being added to the list.
5. The fifth peculiarity relates to the facilities provided
by the educational department for supplying the public
schools with library and prize (but not text) books, and with
maps, charts, diagrams, and apparatus. Not content with
* A progressive scries of text-books (cspccinlly Readers), prepared in and
for Canada, would be preferable as a whole; but, until they are available, the
use of the Irish National text-books, being a symmetrical series, should bo con-
tinued.
+ The example of the state of New York (among other states) furnishei
most valuable and instructivo warning for Upper Canada in library matters
"r^!
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 415
merely authori25ing the use of certain books and apparatus,
the Upper Canada educational department has undertaken
to supply the schools of the province, directly from its own
depositories, with all these valuable requisites. To aid in
the performance of this duty more effectively and advan-
tageously, the Legislature, with a most enlightened liberality,
granted $30,000 a year, to be expended in supplying the
schools with library and prize books, maps, charts, and ap-
paratus, and other adjuncts to their efficiency and success.
The principle upon which this fund is distribut* d is a just
and liberal one. It is as follows: — Whenever a school or
municipal corporation contributes a sum of money for the
purchase of library or prize books, maps, or apparatus, &c.,
at the educational depository, the department contributes an
equal amount, and supplies the parties applyi/ig with arti-
cles at a reduced rate of from 20 to 25 per cent, to the value
of the sum thus augmented. A premium is thus held out
for local exertion and liberality, and each locality is aided
according to its works, and not arbitrarily, whetiier such
aid is required or not, as is done in some of the American
States; while all are encouraged to contribute to the utmost
of their ^.bility to promote the efficiency of the schools.
Thus in a deep and expanding volume is permitted to flow
freely and continuously into every part of the province
streams of knowledge and of intellectual life, purified alike
from every poisonous principle and noxious element.
6. The principle involved in the sixth and last pecu
liarity is a new one in its application to the Canadian school
system. It is that of pensioning the worn-out teachers of
the province.
It has long been maintained, and with justice, that the
profession of teaching has b^en a most laborious and ill-
requited profession in the world; that, while *\j it we owe
our very superiority as an intelligent people, with a heart-
%r
^i.^^'
416 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
less indifference and ingratitude, we neglect, in old age, the
hand that early supplied us with intellectual food, and leave
its possessor to pine and die in solitude and want. Canada
has nobly removed this stigma from her character. She has
extended her generous sympathy and aid to a most deserving
class of men ; men, too, who, amid privations and discourage-
ments doubly endured in a new countr}', devoted themselves
to the public service, when even the very existence of a
public system of education itself was imperiled, or lan-
guished for want of legislative aid and recognition.
7. We can scarcely leave this part of our sketch without
quoting one paragraph illustrative of the religious character
of the Canadian school system, from the speech of the Earl
of Elgin (at present Governor-General of India,) in 1851,
on the occasion of his laying of the corner-stone of the
spacious and commodious buildings devoted to the purposes
of the normal school and the department of public instruc-
tion for Upper Canada, — " the seed plot of the system," as
he has graphically styled it. At the same time, it is but just
to refer to the enlightened policy of Lord Elgin in regard
to popular education in Canada during the seven years in
which he so ably administered the Government of British
North America. As an eloquent and accomplished states-
man, he stood out prominently among the many distin-
guished men who have occupied the high position of Her Ma-
jesty's representative in Canada; and it must ever be a source
of pride and pleasure to the Canadians, and of satisfaction
to himself, that while Governor-General, he identified him-
Belf, personally as well as officially, throughout his whole
administration, with the general education of the people of
Canada. Speaking, on the occasion referred to, in reply to
the Chief Superintendent of Education, who had presented
to him an address on behalf of the council of public in-
struction. Lord Elgin impressively remarked: — " Sir, I un
dorstand from your statements, — and I come to the same
^«»^
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 417
conclusion from my own investigation and observation, —
that it is the principle of our common-school educational
system, that its foundation is laid deep in the firm rock of
our common Christianity. I understand. Sir, that while the
varying views and opinions of a mixed religious society are
scrupulously respected — while every semblance of dictation
is carefully avoided, — it is desired, it is earnestly recom-
mended, it is confidently expected and hoped, that every child
who attends our common schools, shall learn there that he
is a being who has an interest in eternity as well as in time;
that he has a Father towards whom he stands in a closer,
and more affecting, and more endearing relationship than to
any earthly father, and that Father is in heaven ; that he
has a hope far transcending every earthly hope; that he
has a duty, the duty of striving to prove by his life and
conversation, the sincerity of his prayer, that that Father's
will may be done upon earth as it is done in heaven. I un-
derstand, Sir, that upon the broad and solid platform which
is raised upon that good foundation, we invite the ministers
of religion of all denominations, the cfe'/acto spiritual guides
of the people of the country, to take their stand along with
us; that, so far from hampering or impeding them in the
exercise of their sacred functions, we ask and we beg them
to take the children — the lambs of the flock which are com-
mitted to their care — aside, and to lead them to those pas-
tures and streams where they will find, as they believe it,
the food of life and the waters of consolation."
The opinion of Lord Elgin, as to the religious character
of the common-school system of Upper Canada (which he
has here so beautifully and clearly expressed,) is fully borne
out, as will be seen from the following official regulations
on the subject: —
1. The Act itself provides (section 129) that " No person
shall require any profit in any such school to read or study
in or from any religious book or join in any exeicise of de«
0
ad
i '
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Mm
^
418 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
votion or religion objected to by his or her parents or guar-
dians ; but within this limitation pupils shall be allowed to
receive such religious instruction as their parents or guar-
dians desire, according to any general regulations provided
for the government of common schools."
2. These general regulations are as follows : —
(') " With a view to secure the Divine blessing, and to
impress upon the pupils the importance of religious duties,
and their entire dependence on their Maker, the council of
public instruction for Upper Canada recommends that the
daily exercises of each common school be opened and closed
by reading a portion of Scripture and prayer.* The Lord's
Prayer alone, or the forms of prayer provided, may be
used, or any other prayer preferred by tb^ trustees and
master of each school. But the Lord's Prayer should form
part of the opening exercises, and the Ten Commandments
be taught to all the pupils, and be repeated at least once a
week. But no pupil should be compelled to be present at
these exercises against the wish of his parent or guardian,
expressed in writing to the master of the school.
(2) "The clergy of any persuasion or their authorized
representatives, shall have the right to give religious in-
struction to the pupils of their own church in each common
school house, at least once a week, after the hour of four
Vclock in the afternoon; and if the clergy of more than
one persuasion apply to give religious instruction in the
same school-house the trustees shall decide on what d;iy of
the week the school-house shall be at the disposal of the
clergymen of each persuasion at the time above stated.
But it shall be lawful for the trustees and clergymen of any
denomination to agree upon any hour of the day at which
* It may bo interesting and gratifying to state, in connection with the fore-
going, that of the 4,019 oommon schools in Upper Canada, 2,381 of thetn are
reported in 1861 as being regularly opened and closed with prayer, and 2,879
of them in which the Holy Scriptures arc read daily.
HISTORIJAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 419
such clergymen or his authorized representative may give
religious instruction to the pupils of his own church, pro-
vided it be not during the regular hours of the school."
Of the 4,500 teachers employed in the common schools
in 1861, 1,250 were Presbyterians, 1,250 were Methodists,
800 were Episcopalians, 322 were Kcman Catholics, 230
were Baptists, and 85 were Congregationalists. Before
being admitted to examination for certificates of qualifica-
tion to teach, these teachers had to present to the examiners
a certificate of good moral character signed by the clergy-
men of their own rehgious persuasion, thus giving a guar-
antee for their moral if not religious character.
II. PROGRESS OP ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
As has already been intimated, the sum first granted by
the legislature for common school education in Upper Can-
ada amounted to $24,000. This sum was afterwards re-
duced to $10,000 per annum. In 1841, however, when the
foundations of the present system were laid, the noble sum
of $200,000 was granted to carry it into effect in the entir ;
province,— $80,000 to Upper Canada and $120,000 to
Lower Canada. They were afterwards equalized to $100,-
000 each. By the census taken in 1851-2, it was found
that Upper Canada so far exceeded Lower Canada in
population (on which the division of the grant was based)
that $103,000 were appropriated to Upper Canada, and
$97,000 to Lower Canada. The grant to the entire
province in 1862 was $384,000; of this svun the
share coming to Upper Canada was about $213,000
and $171,000 to Lower Canada. About $150,000 are an-
nually appropriated to the common schools;* $10,000
for libraries, maps, and apparatus; $14,200 to the normal
I* The amount set clown for libraries is leas than that granted by the act, but it
represents the average sum. The amount set down for common schools ia
more than the net sum available ; but it is augmented by old balances.
27
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420 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPEH CANADA.
and model schools; $6,000 to the model grammar school;
$4,000 for the support of common-school superannuated
teachers; $1,800 for a monthly journal of education; $2,800
for an educational library and museum; $1,000 for the in-
spection of grammar schools; and $2,000 for a school of
art and design. Thus has the liberality of the legislature
kept pace with the growth and prosperity of the province,
and thus has provision been made for the promotion of
every branch of the great work of popular education in
Upper Canada.
As we have hitherto referred only to what has been
done by the government and legislature for the promotion
of popular education, we now turn to consider the oorre-
pponding exertions of the people themselves.
In 1842, after the passage of the act of 1841, we find
that 1,271 common schools had been established. The
number has now increased to upwards of 4,000. The
school population between the ages of five and sixteen
years has increased from 141,000 in 1842 to 385,000 in
1861, or 173 per cent. The attendance of pupils at the
common schools has increased from 66,000 in 1842 to
330,000 in 1861, or 400 per cent.; and at the grammar
schools from about 1,000 in 1847 to 4,766 in 1861, or
nearly 380 per cent, — a most gratifying increase, certainly,
in each branch of the system, and one that strongly indicates
the increased anxiety of the Canadian public to avail them-
selves of the largely increased facilities of instruction afforded
by these " colleges of the people." The greatest test, how-
ever, of the love of the Upper Canadians for their common
schools is indicated by the amount which they contributo
for their support. In 1842, the total sum raised by assess-
ment, rate-bills, and subscriptions, independent of the
legislative school grant, amounted to $100,000; in 1850,
to $334,400; and in 1861, to $1,215,000. The total ex-
penditure for the salaries of common school teachers
cliool;
luated
|2,800
the in-
lool of
slature
avince,
don of
tion in
LS been
•motion
3 forre-
vve find
i The
0. The
sixteen
5,000 in
3 at the
1842 to
jrammar
L861, or
;ertainly,
indicates
lil them-
aiforded
est, how-
common
ontributo
)y assess-
i of the
in 1850,
total ex-
teachera
=JJ
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 421
amounted in 1842 to $166,000 ; in 1850, to $329,000 ; and
in 1861, to $918,113,— or nearly 800 per cent, in ten
years.
The library system of Upper Canada having been only
put into operation in 1853-4, we can only report the result
of about eight years' efforts of the department to supply
the public with suitable reading books for the winter even-
ings. During that time, however, including books for
school prizes, there have been dispatched from the deposit-
ory at Toronto about 260,000 volumes, and these have gone
into almost every part of Upper Canada, con'-; ying light
and intelligence into many a settler's dwelling.
In order to carry out efficiently a system of public in-
struction so comprehensive in its details, suitable officers
and appliances were found to be necessary, and have, there-
fore, been provided. We will state what has been done in
that direction, and give a short sketch of
III. THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT FOR UPPER CANADA.
Cotemporaneous with and indicative of the growth and
development of the educational system of Upper Canada,
has been the history of the department itself Originally a
branch of the provincial secretary's department, (who was,
ex officio, chief superintendent of education.) with an assist-
ant superintendent and a clerk, it has gradually expanded
into a distinct and important branch of the public service.
It now occupies, with its four excellent accessory schools,
a handsome structure which was specially erected by au-
thority of the legislature for that purpose.
The Education Office was first opened in 1841 at Kingston,
the then seat of government. In 1844, it was, for conve-
nience, removed to Cobourg, (one hundred miles further
west,) and, in 1846, to a building adjoining the old govern-
ment house, at Toronto. In 1852, it was removed to the
new buildings which were erected on a square facing on
Li' 'H
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422 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
Gould, Church, Gerrard, and Victoria Streets, which is now
nearly in the heart of the city.
The duties devolving upon the educational department
include those relating to the general administration of the
common and grammar school laws; the giving of explana-
tions to municipal councils, local superintendents, school
trustees, teachers, and others on doubtful points of law and
modes of proceeding; decisions on appeals and complaints;
auditing municipal school accounts; the oversight of the
normal and model grammar and common schools, and
the granting of provincial certificates to teachers ; paying
and accounting for all the legislative grants for grammar
and common schools; providing teachers' registers, blank
reports and returns for trustees, local superintendents,
clerks, and treasurers of municipalities, and the Journal of
Education (besides editing it) to each local superintendent
and school corporation in Upper Canada; general corre-
spondence relating to the promotion of education, &c.
Some idea may be formed of the gradual progress of
work in the department from the following statement of the
correspondence of it since 1850 : —
During the yean 1850. 1851. I85Q. 18S3. 1854. 1855. 185«. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1881. 1803.
Letters received.. . 1,190 2.026 2 996 4.015 4.920 5,3.38 5.739 6.294 6.431 6,468 7,121 7,215 6,495
Do. sent our,. . 760 1,136 1,430 1,936 2,581 3,764 3,966 3,542 4,627 5,823 6,015 6,656 4,955
No power has been employed by the department but
that of persuasion ; and no attempt has been made to ad-
vance faster than the felt necessities and convictions of the
country would justify. To educate the people through
themselves is the fundamental principle of the Upper Can-
ada school system ; and to assist them to advance their own
best interests and manage their own school affairs has been
the spirit and sole object of its administration.
2. Roman GatlioUc Separate Schools.
The privilege of establishing dissentient or separate
' ":M1
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA, 423
denominational schools in the rural parts of Canada was
first conceded by the legislature in the common school act
of 1841.^ This act was made to apply to the whole prov-
ince, and was designed to affect Roman Catholics and Prot-
estants alike. In this act, separate schools were not
permitted in cities and towns ; but, to obviate their neces-
sity, it was provided that a joint board of Roman Catholics
and Protestants should have the control of all the schools in
these municipalities. t
* The following is the seotion of the act which first authorized rural separate
schools in the townships of Upper Canada and in th& parishes of Lower
Canada : —
" XI. Provided always, and be it enacted, That whenever any number of
the inhabitants of any township or parish, proftssiiig a religious faith different
from that of the majority of the inhabitants of such lownship or parish, shall
dissent from the regulations, arrangements, or proceedings of the common
school commissioners, with reference to any common school in such township
or parish, it shall be lawful for the inhabits. ita so dissenting collectively to sig-
nify such dissent in writing to the clerk of the district council, with the name
or names of one or more persons elected by them as their trustee or trustees,
for the purposes of this act ; and the said district clerk shall forthwith furnish
a certified copy thereof to the district treasurer; and it shall be lawful for such
dissenting inhabitants, by and through such trustee or trustees, who for that
puipose shall hold and exercise all the rights, powers, and authorities, and be
subject to the obligations and liabilities herein before assigned to and imposed
upon the common school commissioners, to establish and maintain one or more
common schools in the manner and subject to the visitation, conditions, rules,
and obligations in this act provided, with reference to other common schools,
and to receive from the district treasurer their due proportion, according to
their number, of the moneys appropriated by law and raised by assessment for
the support of common schools in the school district or districts in which the
said inhabitjints reside, in the same manner as if the common schools so to be
established and maintained under such trusted or trustees, where established
and maintained under the said common school commissioners, such moneys to
be paid by the district treasurer upon the warrant of the said trustee or
trustees."
t The following was the provision in the law designed to meet the case of
cities and towns : —
" XVI. And be it enacted, That it shall be lawful for the Governor of this
province to ap|)oint from time to time in each of the cities and towns corporate
therein, not less tMn six nor more than fourteen persons, (one-half of whom
n-'-
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4:24 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
In 1843, the act of 1841 was repealed so far as Upper
Canada was concerned, and a common school act was passed
applying to Upper Canada alone, in which provision was
made for the establishment of Eoman Catholic and Protest-
ant separate schools, both in the rural school sections and
in cities and towns.* In 1846 this act was also repealed;
shall in all cases be Roman Catholics and the other half Protestants,) to be a
board of examiners for each city or town corporate ; of which said board the
mayor shall be chairman, but shall have no vote other tlian a casting vote ; and
the said board shall be divided into two departments, one of which shall con-
sist of Roman Catholics, and shall exercise the duties herein after assigned to
the boaid of examiners in and over the common schools attended by the
Roman Catholic children only, and shall in such cases appoint their chairman ;
and the other department shall consist of Protestants, and shall exercise their
said duties in and over the common schools attended by the Protestant children
only, and shall in such case appoint their chairman ; and in all cases in which
the said common schools arc attended by Roman Catholic children and Prot-
estant children together, the said duties shall be exercised in and over the same
by the whole board of examiners; and the duties of the said board, and of the
said departments hereof, in the several cases above mentioned, in and for the
said cities and towns corporate, respectively, shall be to examine the persons
recommended as teachers by the corporation, and reject them if unqualified on
the ground of character or ability ; and to regulate for each school separately
the course of study to be followed in such school, and the books to be used
therein ; and to establish general rules for the conduct of the schools, and
communicate them in writing to the respective teachers ; in addition to which
duties, the board of examinei-s in any city or town corporate shall be visitors of
the common schools in such city or town corporate ; and, as such visitors, it
shall be the duty of the board to appoint two or more of their number to visit
each of the common schools -n such city or town corporate, at least once in
every three months, and to report to the corporations upon all matters connected
with each of the said common schools in detail, as fully as common school
commissioners ; and the visitors by them appointed are bound to report to the
district councils under the provisions herein before contained."
* The sections of the act of 1843, authorizing the establishment of separate
schools, are as follows : —
" LV. A7id be it enacted, That in all cases wherein the tcaelier of any such
school shall happen to be a Roman Catholic, the Protestant inhabitants shall be
entitled to have a teacher of their own religious persuasion, upon the application
of ten or more resident freeholders or householders of any school district, or
within the limits assigned to any town or city school ; and, in like manner, when
HISTORICAL 8KETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 425
but in the new and more comprehensive common school
act of that year, the provisions embodied in it in regard to
Koman Cathohc and Protestant separate schools were iden-
tical with those contained in the act of 1843.
In 1847, with a view to extinguish separate schools as a
distinct organization in cities and towns, and to bring all
the schools of the municipality, whether common or sepa-
rate, under one united management, an additional school
act was passed giving the boards of school trustees in cities
and towns power to establish " denominational or mixed "
schools.''^
This provision, however, was not satisfactory to the sup-
porters of separate schools. In 1849, a school act was
passed which contained no provision for separate schools;
but the act being cumbrous and unacceptable never came
into operation. In 1850, the whole school system under-
went a thorough revision and consolidation, and the facili-
the teacher of any such school shall happen to be a Protestant, the Roman
Catholic inhabitants shall have a separate school, with a teacher of their owu
religious persuasion, upon a like application.
" LVI. And he it enacted. That such applications shall be made in writing,
signed with the names of each resident freeholder or householder, and addressed
and delivered to the township, town, or city superintendent ; and such applica-
tion shall contain the names of three trustees who shall be the trustees of such
separate school ; and upon the compliance of such trustees and of the township,
town, or city superintendent with the requirements of this act, such school
shall be entitled to receive its share of the public appropriation, according to
the number of children of the religious persuasion who shall attend such sepa-
rate school, which share shall be settled and adjudged by the townshijt, town,
or city superintendent, subject to an appeal to the county superintendent ; and
all such separate schools shall be subject to the visitations, conditions, rules,
and obligations provided in this act with reference to other common schools, or
to other town or city schools established under this act."
* The sect on of the act of 1 847 reads as follows : —
" V. It shall bt the duty of the board of trustees of each city and town, *
* * Thirdly, to determine the number, sites, and description of schools
which shall be established and maintained in such city or town, and whether
such school or schools shall be denominational or mixed."
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42G IIISTORICAl. SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
tics heretofore enjoyed by Roman Catholics for the estab-
lishment and maintenance of separate schools were restored
to them.
In 1853, the provisions of the separate school law were
extended, and were made to apply to Roman Catliolic, Prot-
estant, and coloured separate schools alike. In 1855, this
law, so far as it related to Roman Catholic separate schools,
was repealed, and an aat prepared under the auspices of the
Roman Catholic clergy, with some modifications, was passed.
This act is still the law of the land ; but as it does not yet
give satisfaction to the parties concerned, it is proposed to
amend it as to remove any just cause of complaint on the
part of Roman Catholics.
It is true that the establishment of these separate Roman
Catholic schools was first permitted by the legislature, not
as a right, but as an experimental concession to the consci-
entious convictions of the Roman Catholics, and with the
hope that by multiplying educational facilities for the poorer
classes in cities and towns, one source of vagrancy and
crime would be dried up. The Roman Catholics contended
that as their standards of religious belief differed entirel}' from
those of the different Protestant denominations, (who had all
a common standard,) they could not allow their children to
attend Protestant schools. The fear was, either that, being
young and inexperienced, the religious faith of the children
would be interfered with, or that they would be allowed to
grow up without any religious influences about them what-
ever. Rather than thus, in effect, to interpose any obstacles
to the promotion of education among the children of Roman
Catholics, especially in cities and towns where it is so much
needed for all classes of children, the concession was made
by the legislature. It was, of course, understood that one
of the more important objects of the Roman Catholic sepa-
rate school law would thus be accomplished ; and that, with
the combined influence of the public common schools, crime
\5
crime
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 427
and vagrancy would sensibly diminish in cities and towns.
Should this desirable object not be accomplished, it would
be competent for the legislature to modify or take away the
powers now conferred by the separate school act.
In 1841, there was only one Roman Catholic separate
school in Upper Canada ; in 1851 they had only increased
to sixteen ; but in 1862 they had increased to one hundred
and nine. The legislative apportionment to these schools
in 1861 was $7,550 ; the local contributions made by their
supporters in the same year was $?3,262; total expenditure
on behalf of these schools in 1861. $30,941. The number
of pupils attending the forty -one separate schools in opera-
tion in 1855 was 4,885, while the number attending the one
hundred and nine schools in 1861 was 13,631.
•
3. Protestant Separate Schools.
The law which at present authorizes the establishment of
Protestant separate schools in Upper Canada was passed in
1850,* but advantage is rarely taken of its provisions.
* The most important parts of this law, authoriang Protestant and coloured
separate schools, are as follows : —
" 1. Upon the application in writing of twelve or more heads of families resi-
dent in any township, city, town, or incorporated village, being Protestants, the
municipal council of the said township or the board of school trustees of any
Buch city, town, or incorporated village, shall authorize the establishn)ent
therein of one or more separate schools for Protestants ; and upon the applica-
tion in writing of twelve or more heads of families resident in any city, town,
or incorporated village, being coloured people, the council of such township, or
the board of school trustees of any such city, town, or incorporated village, sliall
authorize the establishment therein of one or more separate for coloured people ;
and in every such case such council or board (as the case may be) shall prescribe
the limits of the section or sections of such schools."
" 6. No Protestant separate school shall be allowed in any school section, ex-
cept when the teacher of the common school in such section is a Roman
Catholic."
" 7. In all cities, towns, incorporated villages, and township common school
sections in which such separate schools exist, each Protestant or coloured person
(as the case may be; sending children to any such school or supporting the
■ame by subscribing thereto annually an amount equal to the sum at which such
:i!!»ai
iijit I
428 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN I. PPER CANADA.
This law permits the ectablishment of a Protestant separate
school in any locality in which a Roman Catholic teacher ia
employed in the common school ; but although there were
three hundred and twenty-two Roman Catholic teachers
employed in the common schools of Upper Canada in 1861,
only four Protestant separate schools were in existence in
that year. These schools were attended by 120 pupils, and
were supported at an expense of $475 — $415 of which
were contributed by their supporters, and $60 were appor-
tioned from the legislative school grant.
4. Coloured Separate Schook.
The law regulating coloured separate schools is the same
as that which applies to Protestant separate schools. The
coloured people can not be compelled to establish separate
schools, but may do so at their option. They enjoy the
right of sending their children to the ordinary commo:
schools, if they prefer it; but in some neighborhoods where
their numbers warrant it, they are authorized by law to
person, if such separate school did not exist, must have been rated in order to
the obtaining the annual legislative common school grant, shall be exempt from
the payment of all rates imposed for the support of the common schools of such
oity, town, incorporated village, and school section, respectively, ,?nd of all
rates imposed for the purpose of obtaining sue! oommou school grant."
" 9. Such separate schools shall not share in any school money raised by local
municipal assessment."
" 10. Each such separate school shall share in such legislative common
school grant, according to the yearly average number of pupils attending such
separate school, as compured with the average number of pupils attending the
common schools in each such city, town, incorporated village, or township ; the
mean attendance of pupils for winter and summer being taken."
" 17. The trustees of each such separate school shall be a body corporate
under the name of the trustees of the separate school of , (as the case
may be,) in the township, oity, or town (as the case may be) of ; and
shall have the same power to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subscrip-
tions upon and from persons sending children to or subscribing towards the
support of the separate school, as the trustees of a common school section hava
to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subscriptions from persons having
property in the seotion or sending ohildrsn to or subscribing towards the sup-
port of the common school of such section." — [Consolidated Statutes; cap. 65.}
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCAtlON IN UPPER CANADA, 429
unite and establish schools of their own. The number of
these schools in existence in 1861 was only two. They
were attended by 118 children, and were supported at an
expense of $203; of which $127 were contributed from
local sources, and $76 from the legislative school grant.
The additional number of coloured children attending the
common schools has not been reported separately.
5. Indian Schools.
According to the Census of 1861, there were about 8,500
Indians in Upper Canada. Up to the same period, there
were only about .thirty schools established among them.
These schools were taught by about thirty -five teachers, and
attended by about eight hundred pupils. Of these schools,
three were of a superior class, viz. ,; tha New England So-
ciety's (Church of England) school at Mohawk, Grand Eiver,
and the Industrial (Wesleyan Methodist) schools at Mount
Elgin, (County of Middlesex,) and Alnwick (County of
Northumberland.)
The New England Society in behalf of the Indians, was
established in England in Queen Anne's time, (about 1700.)
In 1830, it succeeded to the management of the school es-
tablished for the remnant of the Six Nation Indians at
Mohawk, Grand Eiver, (see page 374.) In this school pro-
vision is made for boarding the Indian boys and girls at-
tending it, and for giving them instruction in the usual
branches of a common English education accompanied with
religious teaching. A part of the boys are also taught
some mechanical arts and instruction is given to some of
the girls in domestic affairs. The schools at Mount Elgin
and Alnwick, are purely industrial or agricultural in their
character. The pupils receive a good plain education ac-
companied by religious instruction ; the girls are also in-
structed in household affairs, and the boys are employed a
portion of each day in workinpf the farm.
k k
i
430 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
CHAPTER 11.
EI.EMENTARY SCHOOLS NOT RECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID.
1. Church of England Parochial Schools.
In most of the cities of Upper Canada, parochial schools
have, for some years, been established in connection with tho
principal Church of England congregations, but jio authen-
tic information relating to their condition has been pub-
lished. They are supported by fees and private subscrip-
tions and are chiefly attended by poor children.
2. Private Schools for Boys and Oirls.
In all the cities and towns of Upper Canada, there are
private schools of various descriptions for boys and girls.
Those for girls are more numerous than for boys, owing to
the greater number of public schools which have been
established for boys. There were in 1861 upwards of three
hundred private schools in Upper Canada, attended by
nearly 7,400 pupils. In the cities and more important
towns, several excellent Roman Catholic convents for the
education of girl& have been established, viz. :
IVie Ladies of Loretto have established convents for the
superior education of young ladies at Toronto in 1847, with
branches at Niagara Falls, Guelph, and Belleville.
The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at To-
ronto, Barric, Niagara, and St. Catharines, besides schools
at Oakville, Brantford, and Paris.
'llie Sisters of the Presentation have an old established con-
vent at Kingston.
4w Ursuline convent exists at Chatham, and a convent
under a French order of the Sisters of Charity at Ottawa.
The Sisters of Notre Dame have a school at Alexandria.
8. Sunday Schools.
From the returns received at the educational department
it appears that there were about two thousand Sunday
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANAD I. 431
schools in Upper Canada in 1861, attended by about one
hundred thousand children. About eighteen hundred Sun-
day school libraries have been established, containing nearly
three hundred thousand volumes of books.
CHAPTER III.
SUPERIOR SCHOOLS RECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID.
1. Upper Canada College.
Upper Canada College, or Royal Grammar School, at
Toronto, was established in 1829-30, by Sir John Colborne
(now Lord Seaton,) and endowed with a grant of sixty-
six thousand acres of the crown lands. This college is
under the control of the senate of the University of Toronto,
and was designed to occupy the same position in Upper
Canada as the best public grammar schools do in England.
It has done good service in its day ; and, since its establish-
ment, has educated about twenty -five hundred pupils, some
of whom now occupy high positions among the public men of
Upper Canada. From two hundred to two hundred and
fifty pupils annually attend the school. In addition to the
principal, there are ten masters in the college. At the July
examinations several exhibitions, varying in value from
forty \aj one hundred and twenty dollars are open to com-
petition among the grammar schools of Upper Canada.
Annual prizes and certificates of honor are annually dis-
tiubuted among the pupils.
2. Model Grammar School for Upper Canada.
Tlie Model Grammar School for Upper Canada is some-
what similar in its character to Upper Canada College. It
was established by the council of public instruction, at
Toronto, in 1858, and was " mainly intended to exemplify
the best methods of teaching the branches required by law
to be taught in the grammar schools, especially classics and
mathematics, and as a model for the grammar schools of the
r
432 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
countrj." It also provides facilities for a training class of
ten grammar school masters. The number of pupils ia
limited to one hundred, or three from each county or union
of counties in Upper Canada. Prizes and certificates are
annually distributed among the pupils. In addition to the
rector there are eight masters.
8. TJie County Grammar Schools.
Grammar schools were first established in Upper Canada
in 1807, under the name of " district schools." The num-
ber established in that year was eight, — or one each for the
eight districts into which the province was then divided.
In 1853, the present county grammar school system was
established. It was designed to form a link between the
common school and the university, and was intended to
provide facilities for giving " instruction in the higher
branches of a practical English and commercial education,
including the elements of mechanics and natural philosophy,
and also in the Greek and Latin languages and in mathe-
matics, so far as to prepare students for University College
or any college affiliated to the University of Toronto."*
The course of study in these schools and the general
regulations for their management are prescribed by the
council of public instruction for Upper Canada. Masters
must cither be graduates of some university, or possess a cer-
tificate of qualification from a committee of examinCiS ap-
pointed by the council of public instruction. Pupils, on
entering a grammar school, are required to pass a prelimin-
ary examination in "reading, writing, spelling; simple
and compound rules of arithmetic, reduction and simple
proportion; elements of English grammar and parsing;
definitions and outlines of geography." There are four
grammar school terms in each year, and the fees are deter-
mined by the local boards of trustees. The members of
these boards arc appointed by the county councils. In 1861
there were eighty-six grammar schools in Upper Canada,
* 16 Viot., chnp. 186.
nng;
four
eter-
of
L861
lada,
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 433
attended by 4,766 pupils and supported at a cost of $85,164,
including a legislative grant of $36,693.
CHAPTER IV*
SUPERIOR SCHOOLS NOT RECEIVING PUBLIC AID,
1. College Preparatory Schools.
Until lately a preparatory school was attached to Trinity
and Queen's Colleges. That connected with Trinity College
has ceased to exist ; while that attached to Queen's College
has been merged into the Frontenac County Grammar
School. The preparatory school connected with Victoria
College is still in successful operation.
2. Seminaries and Academies.
The Friends' Seminary was established near Picton, in
the county of Prince Edward, in 1841, under the direction
and Control of the Society of Friends. The seminary is
situated on a farm of one hundred acres, and will accommo-
date about sixty male and female pupils. At present,
instruction is given in the English branches only ; but ex-
ertions are shortly expected to be made to introduce the
study of the classics into the seminary. It is intended,
also, to erect more suitable buildings, capable of holding
eighty pupils. The officers of the institution are a super-
intendent, a matron, and other teachers — all of whom are
members of the Society of Friends. There are two terms,
— a winter and a summer term.
Tlie Belleville Seminary was established at Belleville,
county of Hastings, in 1864, chiefly by the liberality of
members of the Methodist-Episcopal Church in Canada,
It was opened in 1857, and is under the control of that body.
Its design is to afford instruction in the higher branches
of education to young ladies and young gentlemen. The
building will accommodate three hundred pupils — one bun-
M
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434- HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
dred of whom can reside in the building. The officers of
the institution are, a principal, a preceptress, a professor of
mathematics, of Greek and Latin, and of the natural sci-
ences, besides a lady teacher of music. The sessions begin
in May and September.
The Canadian Literary Institute was established at Wood-
stock, county of Oxford, in 1857-8, by the regular Baptists
of Upper Canada. It is under the control of that body,
and is chiefly designed to afford instruction in the primary
and higher English branches of education to young ladies
and young gentlemen. (The theological department is re-
ferred to on pages 433 and 439.) The course of study, in the
higher departments, is so arranged as to suit male students
both in classics and natural sciences. It is also designed to
prepare male studenia for admission to the Law Society, or
for matriculation in the faculties of arts, law, or medicine in
the University of Toronto. In the course for young ladies,
classics and the higher mathematics are omitted. In the
primary department, no pupil under eleven years of age is
admissible. The number of pupils in attendance in these
branches in 1861, was one hundred and thirty -four; in the
theological class, twenty-seven; total, one hundred and
sixty-one. The officers of the institution are six; viz.: a
principal, two other male teachers, and three female teach-
ers. The terms begin in January, April, and September.
T> . Wesleyan Female College, a proprietary institution
in connection with the conference of the Weslevan Meth-
odist Church in Canada, was established at the city of
Hamilton in 1861. It is designed to furnish a superior ed-
ucation in the English branches to young ladies exclusively.
The proprietors of the college are an incorporated body,
possessed of one or more shares of the value of one hundred
dollars each. The officers of the college are eight; viz.: a
principal, five female and two male teachers, besides a
domestic or house governor, and a chaplain.
w^
and
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itutioa
Meth-
city of
ior ed-
sively.
body,
undred
viz.: a
sides a
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 435
The Convents. In nearly every important town of Upper
Canada, convents have within the last few years been es-
tablished for the instruction of young ladies in the superior
branches of an English education. The following are the
principal ones, viz.:
1. The Ladies of Loretto. They have a superior convent
in Toronto, with, excellent branches at the Niagara Falls,
Guelph, and Belleville. A pupil at one institution can be
removed to the other without any inconvenience.
2. The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at
Toronto, Barrie, Niagara, and St. Catharines. They also
teach the Eoman Catholic Separate Schools at Oakville,
Brantford, and Paris.
3. The Sistei-s of the Presentation have an old established
convent at Kingston.
4. An UrsuUne convent has been established at Chatham,
and a convent under a French order of the Sisters of Charity
has been established at Ottawa. The Sisters of Notre
Dame have a School at Alexandria.
CHAPTEE Y.
PROFESSIONAL SOHOOia
1. Schools of Theology.
I. — CHURCH or ENGLAND.
Although a Royal Charter was obtained in March, 1827,
authorizing the institution of a Faculty of Divinity in the
proposed University of King's College, at Toronto, it was
not until 1843 that a professorship in that faculty was act-
ually established. Pending the protracted public discussions
on the subject, the Right Reverend Doctor Strachan, Prot-
estant-Episcopal Bishop of the diocese, upon the report and
recommendation of his three chaplains, founded a diocesan
28
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436 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDCCATION IN UPPER CANADA
theological college at Cobourg, in December, 1841. This
diocesaa college was continued, notwithstanding th« exist-
ence of the Church of England professorship of divinity in
the University of King's College, from 1843 un«il 1850,
(when an alteration was made in that institution, and the
divinity professorship abolished,) in consequence of the
precarious tenure by which the divinity profesaorship in
King's College was held during those years. In 1851, after
the professorship of divinity was finally abolished, the
bishop undertook the laborious and difficult task of found-
ing a purely Church of England university and obtaining a
Eoyal Charter for it. This he successfully accomplished;
and in January, 1853, he had the satisfaction to preside at the
inauguration of Trinity College University, in which there
was established a faculty of divinity. The diocesan college
at Cobourg was merged into the new university, and in
1853 the students transferred from Cobourg to Toronto.
The regulations of the Theological Faculty in Trinity
College University are as follows: —
" The theological course of Trinity College extends over
two years. Any person is eligible for admission to it who
has taken the degree of B.A., or who, having attained the
age of twenty-one, has passed one year in the Arts Course.
" Bachelor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must
be Masters of Arts of at least seven years' standing. The
requisite exercises are, — " A Latin and an English thesis, —
one on some point of doctrine connected with the Thirty-
nine Articles, and the other on some scriptural subject to
be appointed by the examiners ; An examination must also
be passed in some Latin or Greek treatise or treatises chosen
by the examiners; An English sermon must be preached
before the university.
" Doctor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must
be Bachelors of Divinity of five years' standing. They
will be required to write an English and a Latin thesis, as
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 437
This
exist-
lity in
1850,
ad the
of the
ahip in
»1, after
ed, the
' found-
lining a
plished;
ie at the
ch there
1 college
, and in
•onto.
I Trinity
mds over
to it -who
ained the
Course,
iree must
The
>g-
le
thesis, —
Tliirty-
subject to
must also
ses chosen
preached
Tree must
lig. They
thesis, as
in the case of B.D., and to preach an English sermon before
the university.
" The examiners in divinity shall be the professors of
divinity, and two graduates in that faculty, to be appointed
by the council."
Objections having been made to the character and ten-
dency of the theological teachings in Trinity College, To-
ronto, the Right Reverend Doctor Cronyn, Bishop of Huron,
proposes to establish a theological college in that diocese.
A grant of five hundred pounds sterling has been made for
this object by the society in England for promoting Chris-
tian knowledge. An English gentleman has also given five
thousand pounds sterling towards the same object.
n. — CHURCH OF ROME.
Upper Canada is divided into five Roman Catholic dio-
ceses, viz.: Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, and
Sandwich, in each of which, there is a college for the in-
struction of youth. In these colleges, there is also provision
made for the training of candidates for the priesthood.
Regiopolis College, at Kingston, is the oldest of these dio-
cesan colleges, and, for a number of years, was the only
Roman Catholic college in Upper Canada.
Regiopolis College was founded by the late Hon. and Right
Rev. Bishop McDonell, who left a legacy by will for this
object in 1835. It was opened in 1846 by the Very
Reverend Angus Macdonell, Vicar-General, who is its pres-
ent president. The general course of study in the college
embraces classics, mathematics, philosophy, and theology.
The theological course extends over three years.
St. Joseph's College, at Ottawa, was founded in 1848, by
the Right Reverend Doctor Joseph E. Guigues, first Roman
Catholic bishop of the diocese. It is under the direction of
the " Society of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate." Its
general course is classical and commercial.
I'i '
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438 HISTORICAL SKETCU OI EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
Its theological course comprises moral and dogmatical
theology, and is usually attended by about fifteen students.
Already forty priests have been educated at the college,
and are now perforniing their functions in various parts of
the country.
St. Michael's College was established at Toronto in 1852
by some clergymen of the order of St. Basil, under the pat-
lonage of the Right Reverend Doctor De Charbonell, 2nd
Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto. It is chiefly designed
for the instruction of youth in the higher branches of edu-
cation, but among its professors is one of divinity. The
superior is professor of logic. The course of study in
logic and theology extends from four to five years.
III. — CHURCH OP SCOTLAND.
The Presbyterian Church of Canada, in connection with
the Church of Scotland, have a university at Kingston,
called Queen's College. In its theological faculty there arc
two professors, viz. : the Principal and primarius professor,
and the professor of oriental languages, biblical criticism,
and church history. The theological course extends over
three sessions; the study of Chaldee is only required during
one session, while attendance on the Syriac and Arabic
classes is optional.
TV. — CANADA PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
The Canada Presbyterian Church now includes the United
Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church in
Canada. Both bodies had their separate divinity halls, or
colleges, until the period of the union in 1861, when they
were merged into Knox's (theological) College, Toronto,
which had been established by the Free Church in 1844.
This college has three professors, viz. : the Principal and pri-
marius professor of divinity, the professor of church history
and the evidences of Christianity, and the professor of ex-
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 43J)
egetical theology and philosophy. The course of study ex-
tends over six years, including three years in general studies,
and three years in theology. The admission to the college
is through the various presbyteries, which have the
right of examination in order to entrance. A boarding
house is attached to the college; but residence is optional.
The institution is supported by funds contributed annually
by the congregations of the church. The liberality of
several individuals and congregations has secured to it a fbw
permanent bursaries or scholarships. His Royal Highness
the Prince of "Wales, on the invitation of Principal Willis,
visited the college in 1860, and afterwards made a donation
to it of eight hundred dollars to form a fund for the estab-
lishment of annual prizes. The college possesses a museum
and also a library of about five thousand volumes, which
was established chiefly through the exertions of the Rev.
Principal Willis, Rev. Professor Burns, and other friends.
V. — THE METHODIST CHURCHES.
Although two Methodist bodies in Canada have institu-
tions of learning at which many of their ministers attend
as secular students, in neither of them is there any provi-
sion made for theological training. The different Methodist
bodies have, however, a prescribed course of theological
study which all candidates for the ministry must complete
before ordination and during their four years' probation.
The Wesleyan Methodist course of study will be found on
page 440.
VI. — THE BAPTIST CHURCHES.
The only Baptist institution in Upper Canada in which
provision is made for theological training is the Canadian
Literary Institute at Woodstock. The regulations require
candidates to pass an entrance examination. They must
also bring letters from theii respective churches, either
ll;
■m
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i
j
;
1
1
440 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
licensing them to preach or approving of their studying
for the ministry. Prior, also, to their full admission, they
are required to submit to a committee, chosen by the trustees,
a statement of their Christian experience and call to the
ministry. The course of study extends over three years.
See page 440.
VII. — CONQREGATIONAL CBURCH.
The Congregationalists of the various provinces have,
within the last few years, united their various institutions
into one theological college at Toronto, under the name of
the " Congregational College of British North America."
This college is not endowed, but is supported by annual
contributions from the colonial churches, assisted by a grant
from the Colonial Missionary Society of England. It is
under the control of subscribers, by whom a board of di-
rectors is chosen to manage the college. The course of study
extends over five sessions of six months each. Upwards
of fifty ministers have already been sent out from the insti-
tute. The present course includes " the usual branches of
a liberal education, embracing the original language of the
Scriptures, biblical literature, theology, church history, ho-
miletics and pastoral duty. Every candidate for admission
into the college is required to present to the directors, — 1.
The testimony of the church of which he is a member, and
apparent suitableness for the ministry; 2. A written state-
ment of the grounds of his conviction that he is called to
the work, and his views of Christian doctrine ; 3. Evidence
of sufficient literary acquirements — the minimum of which
shall be a fair English education." Students are first ad-
mitted for one session on probation. No fees are charged
for tuition, and assistance is given, when required, towards
defraying the expenses of board in private families. Ex
aminations are held at the close of each session. The
oollege has a valuable library of over two thousand volumes.
■Mill
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UITER CANADA. 44^
BCHEDULE or THEOLOGICAL TEXT OR REFERENCE DOCKS AND COURSE OF STUDT
IN THE SEVERAL COLLEGES, ETC.
1. Church of England.
Portions of the Septuaglnt ;
Liturgy : Proctor on the Book of Com-
New Testament in Greek, (chiefly the
mon Prayer;
Epistles ;)
Pearson on the Creed ;
ffebrew: Bernard's Guide to the
Hooker's Ecclesiasticjil Polity, Book V j
Hebrew Student ;
\ treatise or treatises of the Fathurs
One or more historical or prophetical
of the first three centuries ;
books of the Old Testament, &c.,
if( science: Bishop Sanderson's
Ecclesiastical History : In th's depart-
otures; De Oblagatione Consei-
ment have been used ; Robertson
je ; Bishop Butler's Sermons,
for the first six centuries ; Hard-
by Whewell ;
wick for the middle ages and Re-
Aristotle, Ethic. Nicom., ii.,iii., iv. ;
formation ; and Massing Cerd, for
Plato, Resp., ii., iii., iv. ;
the English Reformation ;
History of Greek Philosophy ;
Articles of the Church of England: Pro-
History of Moral Philosophy in E g-
fessor Harold Browne's Lectures ;
land.
2. Church of Some.
Bouvier's Institutiones Theologiose ;
Cardinal Wiseman's Lectures on
Gury, Compendium Theologicse Mor-
Science and Revealed Religion ;
ralis ;
L'Abbe Migne's Cursus Completus
St, Liguoris Theologia Moralis ;
Sacrsa Scripturte ;
Billuart on St. Thomas ;
Cursus Completus Sanctorum Patruni .
Cardinel Gousset, Theologie morale et
Commentaries of Maldonatus ;
dogmatique ;
Catechismns Concilii Tridentini ;
Bishop Kenrick, Theologia moralis et
Rodriguez's Christian Perfection ;
dogmatica ;
Calmet ;
Joannes Devoti on Canon Law ;
Dixon's Introduction to Sacred Scrip-
Summa Theologiae, Sancti Tliomae ;
ture ;
Baldeschi's Ceremonial ;
Bouvier and Rothenflue' i Course of
Ceremoniale Episcoporum ;
Philosophy ; including Logic,
Reeve's Church History ;
Metaphysics, and Ethics.
Rohrbacher's Church History ;
3. Church of Scotland.
Theology :
Arnold's First Hebrew Book ; Bible.
Hill's Lectures ; Paley's Evidences ;
Chaldee:
Butler's Analogy ; Greek Testament.
Riggs's Manual ; The Bible.
Biblical Criticism:
Syriac :
Greek Testament ; Eadie on Colossians ;
Uhlemann's Grammar ; The Bible.
Ellicott on Ephesians; Bush's Notes
Arabic :
on Genesis;
Stewart's Grammar ; The Bible.
Home's Introduction ;
Church History:
Wolfe's Hebrew Grammar j
Kurty'B Text-book.
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d
1.', Ji '
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i4
m
442 UI8T0RI0AL SKETCH OF BDUOATION IN UPPiSR CANADA.
4. Canada Prealytcrian Ohm eh.
Systematic Theology — Oells' Institutes
Class of Exegetieal Theology— Ellioot j
of Theology, with extracts from
Eadie on the Epistles ;
Calvin ;
Alford'fc Greek Testament ;
Dr. Willis' Latin Collectanea ;
MoiXfj on the Minor Prophets ;
Biblical Criticism — Home's Introduc-
Mv^tjl and Moral Philosophy, Reid,
tion ;
with Notes by Sir W. Hamilton —
Oass of Evidences of Christianity —
Wayland.
Butler, Paley.
5. Wesleyan Methodist Church.
First year :
{Additional for honors :
The Bible ; Horner's Introduction ;
Smith's Sacred Annals — 1. Patriarchal
Wesley's Sermons, (first scries ;)
Age : 2. Hebrew People.)
Wesley's Christian Perfection 5
Third year:
Wesley's Notes on the New Testa-
Watson's Theological Institutes, (part
ment ;
iii. and iv.;)
Watson's Theological Institut., (part i.)
Pearson on the Creed ;
^Additional for honors :
Taylor's Ancient and Modern History.
Wesley on Original Sin ;
(Additional for honors :
Fletcher's Appeal ;
Smith's Sacred Annals — 3. Gentile
Fletcher's Checks to Antinomianism.)
Nations.)
Second year :
Fourth year :
Watson'? Theological Institut., (part ii.)
Butler's Analogy, with Teft's Analysis ;
Murdoch'^ jklosheim's Ecclesiastical
Upham's Mental Philosophy ;
History by Reid 5
Whately's Logic nnd Rhetoric ;
Dr. G. Smith's History of Methodism ;
{Additional for honors:
Bangs's History of the Methodist-
Examination by miscellaneous questions
Episcopal Church.
on the foregoing.)
6. Baptist Church.
Paley 's Natural Theology;
Giesler's Ecclesiastical History ;
Wayland's Moral Science ;
The New Testament and Septuagint in
Paley and Wilson's Evidences of Chris-
Greek; also translations ;
tianity ;
Analysis and Exegesis in Greek ;
Emesti's Principles of Interpretation ;
Besides lectures on the genuinene^^ of
Hebrew Bible ;
Scripture, History of Sacred Criti-
Malcolm's Butler's Analogy;
cism, Ecclesiastical History, Chris-
Jahn's Biblical Archeology ;
tian Theology, Pastoral Theology
Biblical Geography ; ' Pastoral Duties, &o., &o.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 443
7. Congregational Church
Books of Reference :
1. In Systematic Theology :
Calvin's Institutes;
The works of Howe, Edwards, and
Dwiglit ;
Knapp, Dick, and Wardlaw's Theology;
Dr. Pye Smith's First Lines ;
Payne's Lectures ;
Watson's Institutes.
2. In Biblical Criticism, and Interpret
tation :
Home's Introduction ;
Davidson's Introduction to the New
Testament ;
Westcott on the Gospels ;
Alexander's Christ and Christianity ;
EUicott's Life of Christ ;
Ernesti's Institutes ;
Plank's Sacred Philology ;
Davidson's Biblical Criticism and Her-
meneutics ;
Fairbain's Hermeneutical Manual ;
Kitto, Ilerzog, and Smith's Cyclope-
dias;
2. Schools of Law.
On the Evidences : Butler, Campbell,
Paley, Watson, Chalmers, «&c.;
On the Grnek Testament : Alford, El-
licott, Winer, Benzu, and Oerhau-
sen.
3. In Church History :
Reid's Murdoch's Mosheim, Nean-
der, Giesler, Hase, Kurty, Schaff,
Bower's Lives of the Popes ;
Milman's Latin Christianity ;
(Bohn's) Greek Eeciesiast. Historians ;
Hagenback's History of Doctrine ;
Neander's Christian Dogmas ;
Bingham's and Coleman's Antiquities ;
Chase's Apostolical Constitutions.
4. In Church Government:
John Owen, David Clarkson ;
Wardlaw's Congregational Indepen-
dency ;
Davidson's Church Polity of the New
Testament ;
5. On Bapiism : Wardlaw, Ewing,
L. Woods, Beecher, Wilson, and
Halley.
-THE LAW SCHOOL OP OSOOODE HALL.
" In Upper Canada, the profession of the law is divided
into two branches, each subject to its own peculiar regula-
tions, and, to a certain extent, independent of the other,
though generally the one person practices in both. They
are, barristers^ or persons authorized to ^^ plead ai the bar"
of the courts of law or equity, and to take upon them the
advising and defense of clients, and from whom all judges,
Queen's counsel, and attorneys and solicitors general are
selected; and attorneys and solin'tors, or persons authorized
to " appear in the courts " ii ^e place and on behalf of
others, tp prosecute and defend actions on the retainer
B^mmm
444 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
of clients. The only distinction between these two latter is,
that *' attorney " is the title adopted in the courts of com-
mon law, and " solicitor " the title adopted in the courts
of equity." — [Cajiada Educational Directory, p. 94.
In the study of law, the course presciibed by the Law
Society for Upper Canada takes precedence.*
Students who have already passed through a three or four
years' university course of law studies are still required, if
they wish to become barristers at law, to begin de novo, and
continue as students of the Law Society for three years
longer. While those who are not university graduates are
only required to remain on the books of the Law Society as
students for five years. All students must be at least sixteen
years of age; they must attend term lectures, and must re-
ceive their professional education under the superintendence
of some barrister.
In order to facilitate the education of the students, the
Law' Society has arranged *' that +,he tuition of the pupils
attending the law school shall be by means of lectures,
readings, and mootings; that there shill be four readers,
viz. : the reader on common law, the : Aer on equity, the
reader on commercial law, and the reader on the law of
real property ; that in addition to the lectures in term, there
shall be lectures during the three educational terms of each
* Tlie Law Society of Upper Canada was established in 1797, b)' the Act
37 George III., cap. 13, which enabled the then practitioners of the law to
form themselves into a society, " for the purpose of securing to the country and
the profossion a learned and honorable body, to assist their fellow-subjicts as
occasion may require, and to support and maintain the constitution of the
province." By the same act, the judges of the superior courts were consti-
tuted visitors, with authority to sanction such rules as they considered necessary
for the good government of the society. In 1822, the society was incorporated
by the Act, 2 George IV., cap. 5, and its functions vested in the treasurer and
benchers for the time being, elected according to the by-laws of the society,
much in the same manner as in the law societies of Great Britain and Ireland.
The benchers sit in convocation every law term, for the admission of students
anl barristers, and for other business. — [Canada Educational Directory, p. 96
HISTOUICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
445
year; whicli shall continue for six consecutive weeks each.
The attendance on the lectures of the educaiional term is,
however, voluntary. In order to give an additional st'mu-
lus to the study of law in Upper Canada, the society has
established four scholarships (one for each year's course)
which are open to any student on the society's books,
whether pupils of the law school or not. These scholar
ships are of the respective values of one hundred and
twenty, one hundred and sixty, two hundred, and two
hundred and forty dollars per annum, and are payable
quarterly. The readers deliver the lectures, hold readings,
and preside at fnootings or the moot courts. The charge
for attendance at the law school is one dollar per term.
Students of the Law Society are admitted upon examination
in one of the three following classes, viz. : the university
class, the senior class, and the junior class. The examina-
tion in the university and the senior classes is the same, and
includes Greek, Latin, mathematics or metaphysics, astron-
omy, ancient and modern geography and history; the ex-
amination in the junior class is in Latin, mathematics,
English history, and modern geography.
Every candidate for admission to the bar must be of the
full age of twenty-one years. He must pass an examina-
tion in writing and also ore tenus. These examinations are
divided into two classes, viz. : for " call " simply, or for
" call, with honors." Every student on being called to the
bar must appear before the convocation in a barrister's gown
for the purpose of being presented to the superior courts
by a bencher of the society. Candidates for admission as
attorneys and solicitors must pass a similar examination,
and receive a " certificate of fitness," but are not required
to pass an entrance or matriculation examination as students
of the Law Society. TLey must, however, have completed
the whole term of their articles under the instruction of
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'
44(,» HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN KPPEB ri^NADA.
some attorney or attorneys previou;' to their examination
for a *' certificate of fitness."*
II. — UNIVKESITT OF TOEONTO LAW COUHSE.
No lectures are delivered in the faculty of law in this
university; but the following are the requisites for obtain-
ing the degree of LL.B.'in the ordinary course: —
Having matriculated in the faculty of law;
Being of the standing of four years from matriculation;
Having passed in each of those years the examinations
prescribed in the statute respecting *' subjects of examina-
tion in the faculty of law; "
Being of the full age of twenty-one years.
The following are the requisites for obtaining the degree
of LL.D.:—
Having been admitted to the degree of LL.B. ;
Being of ten years' standing from admissio. to the degree
of LL.B. or of M.A.;
* In an address by the late Sir John B. Robinson, Bart., to the students of the
Jjaw Society, on the occasion of his retirement from the office of Chief-Justice
of Uppor Canada, (after thirty-two years' service,) he thus sums up the
" changes which have taken place in the condition of law students " since he
first studied law in 1807 : 1. The period of study has been reduced two years
in favor of graduates in arts or law ; 8. Term lectures are delivered on the
different branches of law ; 3. The whole of the statutes have been simplified
and consolidated ; 4. Much that was formerly difficult and embarrassing in the
mere technicality of law has by late changes been swept away. lie strongly
advises students " to make some one branch of the law an especial object of
study — resolving to know, so far as it may be possible for you, every thing that
can be known in it, meaning and hoping to become in time an admitted author-
ity in that particular department of the law, whether your inclination and
judgment shall lead you to select the criminal law, the law of real property,
commercial law, or pleading generally, or practice generally. Such a course
would, I believe, insure to the person who pursues it the advantage of soon
being generally and favorably known. He would acquire a reputation which
must advance him in his profession, secure for him the confidence and respect
of his legal brethren, and make his services sought after by those who hava
valuable interests to protect."
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 447
Having composed an approved thesis upon some subject
in law.
Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and
twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in
this faculty; each successful candidate must sign a declara-
tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the Univer-
sity of Toronto.
A gold and a silver medal, certificates of honor, and
prizes in books, are also distributed annually among the
successful students.
111. — UNIVERSITY OF QUEKN'S COLLEGK LAW COUKSE.
The law course in Queen's College extends over three
years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination,
unless they have already passed a similar examination in
any college, or have been admitted as students of the Law
Society for Upper Canada. Lectures are delivered by three
professors.
rv. — UNIVERSITT op victoria college law COURSE.
The law course in Victoria College extends over four
years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination,
unless they have been admitted as barristers by the Law
Society of Upper Canada. A student of three years'
standing in arts may enter at the examination for the
second year; and a graduate in the same faculty may enter
at the third year examination. No lectures are given, but
annual examinations in the subjects prescribed are held.
V. — university op trinity college law course.
No lectures in law have been given since the law course
was opened at Osgoode Hall by the Law Society.
.'.•.- •'!.
%m^
448 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
SCHEDULE OP THE LAW COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNIVEU8ITIBB, ETC.
Law Society for Upper Canada.
Law Scholarships — First Tear:
1. Stephen's Blackstone, Vol i.
2. Stephen on Pleading.
3. Williams on Personal Property.
4. Story's Equity Jurisprudence, from
§ 440.
Second Tear:
1. Williams on Real Property.
2. Best on Evidence.
3. Smith on Contracts.
4. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe.
Third Tear:
1. Real Property : Statutes of U. C.
2. Stephen's Blackstone, Book V.
3. Bylos on Bills.
4. Ilaynes's Outlines of Equity.
5. Coote on Mortgages.
Fourth Tear :
1. Burton on Real Property.
2. Russell on Crimes.
3. Common Law : Pleading and Prac-
tice.
4. Smith's Mercantile Law.
5. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers.
6. Mitford on Pleading.
7. Equity Pleading and Practice.
Examination of Barristers for CaU:
I. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. i.
2. University of Toronto.
2. Addison on Contracts.
3. Smith's Mercantile Law.
4. Williams on Real Property.
5. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe.
6. Stephen on Pleading.
7. Taylor on Evidence.
8. Byles on Bills.
9. Public Statutes of Upper Canada.
10. Pleadings and Practice of the Su-
perior Courts of Upper Canada.
Additional for Call, with Honors :
11. Russell on Crimes.
12. Story on Partnership.
13. Walkins's Principles of Convey-
ancing.
14. Coote on Mortgages.
15. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers.
16. Jarman on Wills.
17. Story's Conflict of Laws.
18. Justinian's Institutes.
Certificate of Fitness for Attorneys :
1. Blackstone's Commentai-ies, Vol. i.
2. Smith's Mercantile Law.
3. Williams on Real Property.
4. Story's Equity Jurisprudence.
5. Statute Laws of Upper Canada.
6. Pleading and Practice of the Courts.
1. Demosthenes, Olynthiacs.
2. Cicero, Orationes in Catilinum, pro
Arohia et pro Maroello.
3. Logical and Rhetorical Forms in
Fowler's English Language.
4. History of English Literature, from
Elizabeth to Anno, in Spaulding's
English Literature.
5. Macaulay's History ; from Charles
i. to William iii., inclusive.
6. Hallam's Middle Ages, chapters i.
and ii., with Appendix.
7. Murray's Logic.
8. Wayland's Moral Philosophy.
9. Whately's Political Economy.
Additional for Honors • ,
1. Demosthenes' Philippics.
2. Cicero, pro Milone.
3. Translation from Latin into English
Prose.
i II
rwm
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 449
4. Analysb of one of Shakespeare's
2. Mitford's Pleading in Equity.
plays.
3. Burton's Compendium of the Law
5. Whately's Synonyms.
of Real Property.
6. Trench's English, Past and Present.
4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant.
7. Trench's Study of Words.
5. Addison on Contracts.
8. Moliere, Le Misanthrope.
6. Westlake's Conflict of Laws.
9. Translation from English into
Candidates for LL.B.:
French.
1. Taylor on Evidence.
2. Sugden on Vendors and Purchase™,
10. Hallain's Middle Ages, chapter
viii.; parts i., ii., iii.
3. Jarman on Wills.
11. Smith's Wealth of Nations, books
4. Blackstone, Vol. iv.
i., ii., iii., iv.
5. Justinian's Institutes.
Second Tear :
6. Gibbon's Roman Empire, chap. xliv.
1. Hallam's Constitutional History.
7. Arnold's Rome, chapters xiii., xiv.,
2. Austin's Province of Jurisprudence.
xvi., xxvi.
3. Smith's Equity Jurisprudence.
Additional for Honors:
4. Williams on Real Property.
5. Smith's Mercantile Law.
8. Sugden on Powers.
6. Bowyer's Civil Law.
9. Wheaton's International Law.
Tliird Year:
10. Mackeldey, Systema Juris Ro-
1, Cox's British Commonwealth.
man!.
3. University of Queen's College.
First Tear:
5. Statutes of Upper Canada.
1. Stephens on Pleading.
Third Tear:
2. Stephens's Blackstone's Commenta-
1. Williams on Real Property.
ries, Vol. i.
2. Story's Equity Jurisprudence.
3. Burton on Real Property.
3. Pleadings and Practice of the Courts
Second Tear:
of Law and Equity.
1. Addison on Contracts.
4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant
2. Smith's Mercantile Law.
5. Jarman on Wills.
3. Taylor on Evidence.
6. Sugden on Vendors and Purchasem.
4. Chitty on Bills.
4. University of Victoria College. ||
First Year:
7. Whately and Hamilton's Logic
1. Cicero, Pro Archia.
8. Statutes relating to the Constitution
2. Demosthenes, De Corona.
of Canada.
3. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, Book
9. Wayland's Moral Science.
ii., chapter 6.
Second Tear:
4. Whately's Political Economy.
1. Hallam's Constitutional History.
5. Brougham's British Constitution.
2. Smith's Wealth of Nations.
6. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vols. i.
3. Powell on Evidence.
and ii.
4. Drewry's Equity Pleading.
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4.50 HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
5. Stephen on Pleading.
6. Blackstone, Vol. iii.
7. Smith on Contracts.
Third Year:
1. Smith's Mercantile Law.
2. Bylee on Bills.
3. Walkins on Conveyancinjf.
4. Williams on Real Property.
5. Story's Equity .Jurisprudence, Vol. i.
6. Justinian's Institutes.
7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to
Real Property and Commercial Law,
Fouilh Year:
1. Bentham's Theory of Legislation.
2. Story's Equity, Vol. ii.
3. Taylor on Evidence.
4. Addison on Contracts.
5. Russell on Crimes.
C. Blackstone, Vol. iv.
7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to
the Administration of Justice and
Criminal Law.
3. Schools of Medicine.
In addition to the ordinary schools of medicine connected
rilL the universities, there are three medical boards in
Upper Canada for the examination and licensing of candi-
dates desiring to practice physic, surgery, and midwifery.
These three are (1.) The " Medical Board of Upper Canada,"
which me6ts quarterly in the Toronto General Hospital;
(2.) The " Homeopathic Medical Board of Canada," which
meets in Toronto half-yearly; and (3.) The "Eclectic Med-
ical Board," which annually meets in Toronto.
I. — UNIVERSITY OP TORONTO MEDICAL COURSE.
No lectures are gi^ en in the medical faculty of this uni-
versity; but the following are the requisites for admission to
the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in the ordinary course :
1. Having matriculated in the faculty of medicine, or
having matriculated and passed one other examination in
either of the faculties of law or arts;
2. Being of the full age of twenty-one years;
3. Having pursued medical studies for the period of at
least four years, and having regularly attended lectures
thereon ;
4. Having passed in this university an examination in all
the medical subjects specified;
5. Producing satisfactory certificates of good conduct.
rm^'
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 451
The following are the requisites for admission to the
degree of M. D. : —
Having been admitted to the degree of M, B. ; being of
one year's standing from admission to the degree of M. B. ;
and having composed an approved thesis upon some medi-
cal subject.
Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and
twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in
this faculty ; each successful candidate must sign a declara-
tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the University
of Toronto.
II. — UNlVEitSITT OP queen's COLLEGE MEDICAL COURSE.
The faculty of medicine in this university was established
in 1854. It includes seven professors and the president.
The period of instruction extends over four years. Attend-
ance on full course of daily lectures in at least two classes
is required. One year's instruction under a qualified medi-
cal practitioner is received as equivalent to a year's attend-
ance at college.
Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of
age, and must present a certificate of good moral character,
with a statement of his literary, scientific, and medical
studies. He must also submit an original thesis for the
approval of the faculty. At the end of the third year
a primary examination takes place, and a final examination
at the end of the fourth year. These examinations are held
both in writing and viva voce.
HI. — UNIVERSITY OP VICTORIA COLLEGE MEDICAL COURSE.
The faculty of medicine in this university was established
at Toronto, in 1854, by the merging of what was then called
the Toronto, or Rolph's, School of Medicine, (founded by the
Hon. Dr. Rolph in 1843,) into the university. It now em-
braces eight professors, (including an assistant,) and the dean
29
f;
i
^
452 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDCOATION IN UPPER CANADA.
of the faculty. The period of instruction extends over four
years ; but, if found duly qualified, a st\ideut may graduate
in three years.
Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of
age, and must compose, for the approval of the faculty,
a thesis upon some medical subject.
IV. — TORONTO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.
As this institution, although incorporated in 1851, can
not confer degrees of itself, it is affiliated with the Univer
sity of Toronto for that purpose ; its examinations are con-
ducted in that university, and upon the result of those
examinations the medical degrees are conferred upon its
students. There are eight lecturers in the school, in-
cluding its president. In addition to its own museum,
the medical museum of the Toronto university has been
placed in its charge, and forms a valuable collection for
the use of students.
SCHEDULE OP THE MEDICAL COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNIVERSITIEa, ETC.
Matriculation :
Sallust, Catilina ;
Arithmetic and Algebra, in part ;
English Grammar and Composition ;
English History ;
Ancient and Modern Geography ;
Elements of Chemistry ;
Elements of Physiology ;
Elements of Botany.
For Degree of M.B.:
Examination in the following sub-
jects :
Having attended two courses of lec-
tures of six months each* on
Anatomy,
Physiology,
* Or having attended one courte of liz
twelve cfttes of labour.
1. University of Toronto.
Practical Anatomy,
Theory and Practice of Medicine,
Principles and Practice of Surgery,
Chemistry,
Midwifery and Diseases of Women
and Children ;
Having attended one course of lectures
for six months on
Therapeutics and Pharmacology ;
Having attended one course of three
months on
Practical Chemistry,
Medical Jurisprudence ;
Having attended twelve months' prac-
tice at some general hospital, and six
months' clinical lectures on Medicine
and Surgery.
monthi with certificate of having auiited at
er four
raduate
ears of
faculty,
151, can
Univer
are con-
if those
ipon its
tool, in-
nuseum,
las been
;tion for
riES, ETC.
dicine,
Surgery,
jf Women
3 of leoturea
ology;
se of three
onths' prac-
}ital, and six
on Medicine
ing assisted at
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 453
2. Queen's College, Kingston.
Ufalriatlaiion :
CsBsar'a Commentaries ;
London Pharmacopoeia, or Gregory's
Conspectus.
For Degree of M.D.:
Examination on the following sub-
jeota:
Having attended two courses of six
months each on
Anatomy,
Practical Anatomy,
Principles and Practice of Surgery,
Theory rnd Practice of Medicine,
Materia Medica and Pharmacy,
Chemistry,
Obstetrics and Diseases of Women
and Children,
Institutes of Medicine ;
Having attended two courses of three
months each, or one of six months,
on Clinical Medicine, Clinical Sur-
gery;
Hospital, twelve months.
3. Victoria College, Cdbourg.
Principles and Practice of Surgery,
Principles and Practice of Medicine,
Materia Medica and Therapeutics,
Chemistrj",
Midwifery and the Diseases of Women
and Children,
Clinical Medicine and Surgery ;
Having attended one course of six
months on
Medical Jurisprudence and
Pathology.
Matriculation :
Sallust, CaUlina ;
London Pharmacopoeia,
Gregory's Conspectus, or any other
Latin author.
Ibr Degree of M.D.:
Examination in the following sub-
jects:
Having attended two courses of six
months each on
Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy,
Physiology,
4. Toronto School of Medicine.
The same as that of the University of Toronto.
4. Schools of Teaching.
I. — THE NOKMAL SCHOOL FOR TTPPER CANADA.
The establishment of a normal school for the training of
teachers, as a necessary part of a national system of educa-
tion, engaged attention in Upper Canada in 1836. But no
detailed plan by which that object could be accomplished
was recommended to the legislature until the presentation,
in 1846, of a " Keport on a System of Public Elementary
Instruction for Upper Canada," by the Rev. Dr. Ryerson,
Chief Superintendent of Education. Practical effect was
immediately given to these recommendations, by the passing
j!
454
ilSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
of a school law embodying the general features of the sys-
tem sketched out in that report, — appropriating $6,000 foi
furnishing suitable buildings, and an annual grant of an
equal amount for the support of the school. After the
necessary arrangements hud been completed, the Normal
School for Upper Canada was opened on the 1st of No-
vember, 1847, in the old Government House, Toronto, in the
presence of a large number of gentlemen from different
parts of the province.
T' ^ institution having proved entirely successful, and
m 'd enlarged premises having become necessary, the
legi. are, at its session in 1850, appropriated $60,(' '0 for
tlie purchase of a site and erection of buildings, and ' ad-
ditional $40,000 in 1852, making in all $100,000. ''he
corner-stone of the new buildings was laid on the 2nd of
July, 1851, by His Excellency the Earl of Elgin and Kin-
cardine, in the presence of the members of both branches
of the legislature, the judges, cl-^rgy, and the citizens of
Toronto. The premises were formally opened by a public
meeting in the theatre of the institution, on the 24th of
November, 1852.
The institution consists of a normal school and two
model schools (one each for boys and girls;) the normal
school is the school of instruction by lecture, — the model
school the school of instruction by practice. The one hun-
dred and fifty students in the former are teachers-in-training,
whose ages vary from sixteen or eighteen to thirty, while
the hundred and fifty pupils in each of the latter are chil-
dren between the ages of five and sixteen years. In the
normal school, the teachers-in-training are instructed in the
principles of education and the best methods of communi-
cating knowledge to the youth placed under their care — are
" taught how to teach ; " in the model schools they are taught
to give practical effect to those instructions by teachers pre-
viously trained in the normal school, and under the direction
n ad-
he syg-
OOO fot
b of an
fter the
N'ormal
of No-
), in the
lifferent
■n\ and
ary, the
,0'>0 for
d
0.
2nd of
md Kin-
branches
tizens of
a public
24th of
and two
e normal
le model
one hun-
•training,
;y, while
are chil-
In the
,ed in the
ommuni-
care — are
ire taught
jhers pre-
direction
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 455
of the head master. The model schools are designed, both
by the system of instruction pursued and general arrange-
ment, to be the model for all the public schools in Upper
Canada.
The principal general regulations for admission of the
students to the normal school are as follows: —
I. No male student shall be admitted under eighteen
years of age, or a female student under the age of sixteen
years. 1. Those admitted must produce a certificate of
good moral character, dated within at least three months of
its presentation, and signed by the clergyman or minister
of the religious persuasion with which they are connected.
2. They must be able, for entrance into the junior division,
to read with ease and fluency; parse a common jirose sen-
tence according to any recognized authority; write legibly,
readily, and correctly; give the definitions of geography;
have a general knowledge of the relative position of the
principal countries with their capitals, the oceans, seas,
rivers, and islands of the world; be acquainted with the
fundamental rules of arithmetic, common or vulgar frac-
tions, and simple proportion. They must sign a declaration
of their intention to devote themselves to the profession of
school-teaching, and state that their object in coming to the
normal school is to qualify themselves better for the impor
tant duties of that profession.
II. Upon these conditions, candidates for school-teaching
will be admitted to the advantages of the institution with-
out any charge, either for tuition, the use of the library, or
for the books which they may be required to use in the
school.
III. Teachers-in-training must board and lodge in the
city, in such houses and under such regulations as are
approved of by the council of public instruction.
IV. A sum at the rate of one dollar per week (payable
at the end of the session,) will be allowed to each teacher-in-
!
h.
i
456 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
V 1 ii\
■.1iJ''^i''i
It , h
training who, at the end of the first or second session, shall
be entitled to either a first or second class provincial certifi*
cal"; but no teacher-in-training shall be entitled to receive
aid for a period exceeding ore session, and no resident ol
the city of Toronto shall be entitled to receive aid.
V. The continuance in the school of the teachers-in-
training is conditional upon their diligence, progress, and
observance of the general regulations prescribed. Each
session to be concluded by an examination conducted by
means of written questions and answers.
On the establishment, in 1857, of an educational museum
and a model grammar school, it v;as found necessary to
provide further accommodation, and to remove the normal
school to another part of the premises. "With this view, a
large additional building was erected, at a cost, including
fittings, of about $35,000, in rear of the main structure,
having a handsome front facing on Gerrard Street. To
this building was transferred, in 1858, the normal school —
the model grammar school being then but newly opened.
II.— THE MODEL ORAMMAU SCHOOL FOR UPPER CANADA.
The Model Grammar School was designed not only to
exhibit the best system of grammar school organization,
discipline, and teaching, but it was also intended as a train-
ing school for masters and assistant masters of grammar
schools in Upper Canada.
The regulations of the training department of this school
are as follows : —
1. No fees will be charg d to students admitted in this
department; and eo'*^ cstuuent, if approved at the end of
each term, may be assisted during one year to the amount
of a dollar per week, towards the payment of his board.
2. Each student must sign a declaration to become a
grammar school teacher in Upper Canada.
3. Graduates of universities in Her Majesty's dominions
^'\\l be admitted without examination, and be aided by such
tti
m, sliall
,1 certifi*
receive
ident ol
cliers-in-
ess, and
1. Each
icted by
museum
jssary to
e normal
s view, a
ncluding
structure,
reet. To
school —
apened.
t only to
anization,
IS a train -
grammar
his school
3d in this
he end of
le amount
i board,
become a
dominions
jd by such
BiSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
457
instruction and practice as may qualify them for the special
duties of organizing, teaching, and managing a grammar
school, and will receive a certificate accordingly.
4. A student who is not a graduate of some university in
Her Majesty's dominions must be at least twenty years of
age, and pass an entrance examination in the subjects for
matriculation in arts in the Provincial University.
5. He will receive instruction in ail the subjects required
by law, to qualify for the mastership of giammar schools,
as also in the best methods of teaching and managing
schools. Each student on leaving the school will receive,
if approved, a certificate from the rector, in addition to his
legal certificate of qualifications from the committee of ex-
aminers, according to his attainments and merits.
The general management of both institutions is intrusted
to the council of public instruction appointed by the Crown ;
and their governmental superintendence, together with the
executive management of the grammar and common schools
of Upper Canada, to the chief superintendent of education.
CHAPTER VI.
UNIVERSITIES.
Having already alluded in this paper to the faculties
of law, medicine, &c., in the four universities of Upper
Canada, it may be considered sufficient in this place briefly
to refer to each university separately^ and to give, in a
schedule, the course of study in the remaining faculty of
arts.
i. The University of Toronto.
This institution is simply an examining body, and confers
degrees in the faculties of arts, law, and medicine. Its his-
tory has been very varied since its first establishment
.4
M
I
i
I
458 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA.
in 1842, when, as King's College, it united the functions of
a college with those of a university. Since 1853, these
functions have been separate; and the two institutions are
now designated respectively the University of Toronto and
University College, Toronto.
This latter institution is designed for teaching only. It
has nine professors, including a president and a lecturer and
tutor. Its lecture courses are delivered in the handsome
University Buildings, University Park. Its annual income,
including that of the University of Toronto, is nearly
$55,000. The value of that part of the original grant of
lands, already sold, is about $1,500,000.
The regulations of the University of Toronto and of Uni-
versity College in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows:
Degree of B. A. — Candidates, on entering, must produce
satisfactory certificates of age and of good conduct. The
regular mode of proceeding to the degree of B. A. is
by passing the five annual examinations prescribed; but
students may enter at any of the annual examinations on
certain conditions. Candidates for the degree of B. A. who
arc not students in any affiliated college must, in each of
the years succeeding that in which they matriculated, pass
an examination in the subjects appointed for such year.
Degree of M. A. — Candidates for the degree of M. A.
must have been admitted to the degree of B. A. ; must be
of the standing of one year from admission to the degree
of B. A. ; and must have composed an approved thesis
upon some subject in one of the departments in the faculty
of arts.
Eight scholarships are annually offered for competition —
at the matriculation examination, and at the end of the
first, second, and third years' examinationvS, and five at the
final examination. Each scholarship is of the value of
one hundred and twenty dollars a year. Each scholarship
is tenable for one year only ; but the scholars of one year
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
459
are eligible for the scliolarships of the succeeding years.
No student can hold two scholarships at the same time;
but if two or more scholarships have been awarded to him,
he will be entitled to the sum of forty dollars for each ad-
ditional scholarship, his scholarship being called a double,
triple, &c., scholarship, as the case may be, and the senate
may award the remainder of the value of each additional
scholarship to the student who would next have been
entitled to it. All scholars will be required to sign a dec-
laration that it is their intention to proceed to a degree in
the University of Toronto.
Gold and silver medals, prizes in books, and certificates
of honour are also given to the most successful students.
2. The University of Victoria College, Cobourg
This institution originated with the Wesleyan Methodist
Church in 1828, and is still under its control. It was
erected through the efforts of members of that churcb, aided
by a provincial grant of $16,400. It was first opened as
" Upper Canada Academy," under a royal charter, in 1832,
and for eight years was attended by male and female
pupils. In 1840, it was by the legislature erected into a
college and university ; and in October, 1841, it wao
formally opened, as such, under the principalship of the
Rev. Dr. Rycrson. It now contains three faculties, — those
of arts, law, and medicine. It has no permanent endow-
ment; but it is supported by voluntary contributions and
fees, supplemented by an annual parliamentary grant of
$5,000, and also $1,000 to the faculty of medicine. Its
annual income from these sources (not including the medi-
cal faculty) amounts to about $9,500. The number of
professors and tutors in the faculties of arts ai^d medicine,
including the president, is fourteen. The number of stu-
dents is about two hundred, not including preparatory
students.
■''iSL
H'i
I,' );l>j
460 HI8T0 RIC AL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPI BR CANADA.
The regulations of the university, in regard to the faculty
of arts, are as follows: —
Degree of B. A. — After matriculation the course of study
embraces four years ; on the satisfactory completion of which>
students are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
Attendance on lectures during the entire four years is
requisite to graduation. Any student not intending to
graduate may pursue a special or elective course, selecting
such studies as his circumstances may require.
For the accommodation of such students, special classes
are formed in natural philosophy, logic, rhetoric, meta-
physics, and other subjects.
Degree of M. A. — This degree is conferred, in course,
on all Bachelors in Arts of three years' standing, whose
mental improvement and moral character have appeared
satisfactory to the authorities of the university.
Medals, Prizes in Books, &c. — The Prince of Wales gold
and a silver medal, with various prizes in books, are given
to the most successful students.
3. The Universily of Qiteen's College, Kingston.
Queen's College University received a royal charter in
1841. It is under the control of the Presbyterian Church
of Canada in connection with the Church of Scotland; and
is mainly supported by the voluntary f^.ontributions of
members and societies of that church, both in Canada and
Scotland. It is the only university in Upper Canada which
contains the four faculties of arts, theology; law, and medi-
cine. Its endowment fund amounts to $101,738, and its
annual income to about $13,300, including a parliamentary
grant of $5,000 to the faculty of arts, and $1,000 to the
faculty of medicine; besides $1,703 from the colonial com
mittee of the Church of Scotland to the faculty of theology
The number of professors in four faculties is eighteen, in-
cluding the principal. The number of students in these
s^^.veral faculties is about one hundred and eighty.
I
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 461
The regulations of the university, in regard to the facultj
of arts, are as follows: —
Degree of B. A. — The degree of B.A. is obtained by
attending the courses of lectures in arts extending over
three years, and by passing the prescribed examination.
Degree of M. A. — The degree of M. A. can be taken only
after an interval of two years from the date of graduation
as B. A. The candidate must compose a satisfactory thesis
on a professional or other subject selected by himself and
approved by the faculty.
Graduates will be ranked in three classes: 1. Those who
simply pass; 2. Those who pass with honors; 3. Those
who pass with highest honors. A student is not entitled to
highest honors unless he has gained honors in each of the
departments of classics, mathematics, natural history, moral
philosophy, and English literature.
Scholarships and Prizes. — Twenty scholarships of the
annual value of from twenty to eighty dollars, and tenable
from one to three years, are at the disposal of the college.
Prizes, including the Prince of Wales prize, are also given
to the most successful students.
4. TJie University of Trinity College^ Toronto.
On the passage of the law in 1849, changing King's
College into the University of Toronto, the venerable
bishop of Toronto (the Eight Reverend Doctor Strachan,)
undertook the establishment of Trinity College as a Church
of England university. The buildings for the university
were erected at a cost of nearly $55,000. About $200,000
were collected to form its endowment. The annual income
of the college is about $17,000. The number of professors
is seven, including the provost, or head of the college.
The regulations of this university in regard to the faculty
of arts are as follows: —
Degree of B. A. — All candidates for the degree of B. A.
V-TOl
i.J
V
i
Bsam
M
III!
l?*ll
462 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
must be matriculated students of Trinity College, and have
kept nine complete terms. They will be required by the
university to pass two examinations.
Ist. The previous examination, which will take place at
the end of the Lent term in the second year.
The names of those who pass this examination will be
arranged in two classes, in alphabetical order, — the first
class consisting of those who shall pass with credit; the
second, of those to whom the examiners shall only not
refuse their certificate of approval.
Any one who shall absent himself from the proper ex-
aminations of his year without the written approval of the
vice-chancellor, will not be allowed the Lent term of that
year. '
Those who fail to satisfy the examiners must present
themselves at the examination in the following year.
2nd. The examination for the degree of B. A. which will
take place at the beginning of the tenth term from matricu-
lation.
Those who shall have been approved at this examination
may present themselves for further examination for honours
in chissics or mathematics.
The honour examination will take place shortly after the
examination for the ordinary degree of B. A. The result
of each honour examination will be published in three
classes, in order of merit.
Provision for admitting candidates to Degrees in Arts, by
examination, without residence. — In consideration of the
small opportunity which the inhabitants of the province
have hitherto possessed of availing themselves of a univer-
sity education, the corporation have resolved to admit can-
didates to degrees in arts, by examination, without residence
or attendance at lectures, for the space of five years, beginning
from October, 1860, under the following regulations: —
1. All candidates shall be members of the United Church
of England and Ireland;
passing
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 463
2. They shall produce testimonials of good conduct and
attainment, signed by at least one parochial clergyman and
two laymen of respectability ;
3. They shall also satisfy the corporation that profes-
sional duties preclude the possibility of their
through a regular college course ;
4. No candidate shall be less than twenty-five years of age;
5. These regulations shall in no way affect the regulations
already made respecting students in divinity;
6. Candidates shall pass the several university examina-
tions— that is to say, the examination for matriculation, the
previous examination, and the examination for the degree
of B. A., at the usual intervals.
N. B. — Under this statute, candidates may be admitted to
the matriculation examination for the first time in October,
1860, and for the last time in October, 1864.
Scholarships. — Twenty scholarships and exhibitions, ten-
able from one to three years, and of the annual value of
from eighty to two hundred dollars, are at the disposal
of the college.
Any person offering himself as a candidate for admission
is required to produce testimonials of good conduct, and to
pass a matriculation examination.
Every candidate for admission must have tntered on his
sixteenth year; for a scholarship, on his seventeenth year.
Medal and Prizes in Books. — A medal and various prizes
in books are also given to the most successful students.
BOHKDULE OP THE COURSE OF STUDY AND TEXT-BOOKS IN THE FACULTY Of
ARTS IN THE FOLLOWING UNIVERSITIES:*
1.
Matriculation :
Xenoplion's Anabasis, book i.;
Sa'.lust's Catilina ;
Virgil's ^neid, book ii.;
Latin Prose Composition ;
University of Twonto,
Arithmetic, to end of square root j
Algebra, first four rules ;
Euclid, book !.;
English Grammar ;
Outlines of English History ;
* Not inoluding the honour coucso, tvhich includes options, &o.
ffCi'l^
I
h
V
1
464 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
Outlines of Roman History, to death of
Medieval History;
1 Nero ;
British History ;
' ' • Grecian History, to death
Chemistry and Chemical Physios ;
1 of Alexander ;
Mineralogy and Geology ;
1 Ancient and Modern Ge-
Murray's Logic ;
j ography.
Wayland's Moral Philosophy ;
First year:
Locke, books ii., iii., and iv.j
Homer's Iliad, book vi.;
Third year :
Lucian's Vita and Charon ;
Sophocles, (Ed i pus Rex;
Virgil's ^neid, book vi.j
Herodotus, book ii.;
Cicoro, de Amicitia
Horace, Satires and Epistles ;
Latin Prose Composition j
Livy, book v.;
Arithmetic ;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Algebra ;
Hydrostatics, Optics ;
Euclid, books i.-vi.
French Composition ;
Plane Trigonometry ;
Racine's Phedre and Athalie ;
English Composition ;
Bossuet's Oraisons Funebres ;
English Language and Literature ;
French Liter.iture ;
French Grammar ;
German Grammar, &c.;
Montesquieu's Grandeur et Decadence
German Composition ;
dcs Romaines ;
Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm ;
Ancient History ;
German Literature;
British History ;
Modern History ;
Elements of Chemistry ;
British History ;
" Physiology ;
Chemistry ;
" Botany ;
Comparative Physiology ;
Paley's Natural Theology j
Vegetable Physiology, &c.;
Paley's Evidences.
Reid's Intellectual Powers ;
Second year:
Stewart's Moral and Active Powers ;
Homer's Odyssey, book xi.;
Whately's Political Economy.
Demosthenes' Olynthiacs ;
Filial examination:
Horace, Odes ;
Euripides, Medea ;
Cicero, two orations ;
Tljucydides, book vii.;
Latin Prose Composition j
Juvenal, sat. iii., vii., viii., and x.;
Statics, Dynamics ;
Tacitus, Germania and Agricola ;
English Composition ;
Latin Prose Composition ;
English Literature ;
Acoustics; Astronomy;
French Composition ;
English Composition ;
La Bruyere Caracteres ;
English Language and Literature j
French Literature ;
French Composition ;
German Grammar ;
Corneille's Le Cid ;
Adler's German Reader ;
De Stael's De I'Allemagne;
German Literature ;
French Literature .
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
465
German Composition ;
Schiller's William Tell, &o.;
German Literature ;
2. University of
Mairiculaiion :
Greek Grammar ;
Greek Reader ;
Latin Grammar;
Latin Reader ;
Arnold's First Book, Latin j
Cornelius Nepos ;
Sallust's Jugurthine War ;
English Grammar ;
English Composition;
Outlines of English History ;
Scripture History : the Pentateuch ;
Arithmetic ;
Algebra ;
Geography, Ancient and Modern.
Freshman year:
Xenophon's Anabasis, books i. and iii.;
Herodotus, book i.;
Greek Prose Composition ;
Greek Lexicon ;
Greek and Roman Antiquities ;
Virgil's ^neid, books i., ii., iii., and vi.;
Livy, book i.;
Latin Lexicon ;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Geometry, nine books ;
English Elocution;
English Composition ;
French Grammar;
French Reader ;
Fenelon's Telemaque ;
Scripture History : Old Testament ;
Chemistry, Electricity, Magnetism, and
Elcctro-Chemistry.
Sophomore Class:
Homer's Iliad, four books;
Xenophon's Memorabilia, books i. and
iv.;
Greek Prose Composition ;
Horace, Odes, books i, and ii.;
Chemistry. Mineralogy , Geology, Phys-
ical Geography , and Meteorology;
Smith's Wealth of Nations.
Victoria College.
Horace, Satires and Epistles;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Loomis's Trigonometry, plane and
spherical ;
Mensuration, Surveying, and Leveling;
Analytical Geometry and Conic Sec-
tions ;
English Eltx^ution ;
English Composition ;
French : Raelne ;
Animal Physiology ;
Botany, Mineralogy, Geology ;
Natural History.
Junior year:
Thucydides, b<x)k i.;
Greek Testament ;
Tacitus, Germania and Agricola ;
Cicero, De Officiis;
English Elocution ;
English Composition ;
German Grammar ;
Mechanics ;
Acoustics and Optics ;
Logic ;
Mental Philosophy ;
Stewart's Active and Mural Powers,
Senior year:
Demosthenes, De Corona ;
Aristotle's Ethics ;
Horace, Ars Poetica ;
Cicero, De Oratore ;
Juvenal, satires iii., x., xiii., and xiv.;
Hebrew ;
English Elocution ;
English Composition ;
German Reader ;
Evidences of Christianity ;
Differential and Integral Calculus ;
Astronomy ;
Political Economy.
Xm
; 1
I
m
S-rf?
^f
11.
I '"- '■' ''A
h ffl
466 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPP'jJB CANADA.
8. University of Queeria College.
Matriculation :
Horace, Epodes ;
Greek Grammar ;
Virgil, Geoi'gics, book iv.;
Xenophon's Anabasis, book i.j
Latin Prose Composition ;
Sallust's Catiline ;
Euclid, parts of books xi. and xii.;
Virgirs ^neid, books i. and ii.;
Trigonometry, plane and spherical ;
CoBHar, book i.;
Whewell's Conic Sections ;
Arithmetic, to end of roots ;
Hall's Different, and Integ. Calculus ;
Algebra, to end of simple equations ;
Potter's Mechanics ;
Euclid^ books i. and ii.
Natural Philosophy ;
First year :
Balfour's Outlines of Botany ;
Homer, Iliad, book vi.}
Natural History, Animal Kingdom }
Luoian, Vita et Charon ;
Page's Geology ;
Greek Prose Composition ;
Gray's Manual of Botany ;
Cicero, De Amioitia ;
Third year :
Virgil's ^Eneid, book vi.;
Plato, Apology and Crito ;
Horace, Odes, book i.j
Sophocles, (Edipus Coloucus;
Latin Prosody ;
Greek Composition ;
Roman Antiquities ;
Greek Antiquities ;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Roman Antiquities ;
Euclid, first six books j
9
Tacitus, Annals, book i.j
Algebra ;
Livy, book xxi.;
Plane Trigonometry ;
Lntin Composition ;
Logarithms.
Terence, Phormio ;
Second year :
Newton's Principia, first three Bee*
Demosthenes, Philippics ;
tions ;
Euripides, Alofstis ;
Hydrostatics, Optics, Astronomy ;
Greek Prosody ;
Whately's Logic : Fallacies, Rhetoric,
Greek Prose Composition;
part iv.;
Greek Antiquities ;
Hamilton's Metaphysics ;
Cicero, Pro Milone ;
Wayland's Moral Science, book i.
4. University of Trinity College.
Matriculation :
Arithmetic ;
Xenophon's Anabasis, book i.;
Algebra, to end of simple equations ;
Saliust's Catiline ;
Euclid, books i. and ii.;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Freshman year:
Grecian History ; from Persian inva-
Two Greek and two Latin authors ;•
sion to the end of the Peloponne-
General and Organic Chemistry ;
sian war ;
Experimental Philosophy.
Roman History: from the expulsion
Second year:
of the kings to the death of
An historical book of the New Testa-
Cffisar;
ment ; .
* The pnrtictilnr Greek and Lntin authors
ror examination are f'Tcd at the beginning of
^e preceding Lent term of each year.
I xii.;
erical ;
Calculus 5
ngdom }
three bcc*
momy ;
IS, Rhetoric,
book i.
equations ;
I authors ;•
■mistry 5
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN CPPER CANADA.
467
Palsy's Evidences ;
Church Catt'ehism ;
One Grceic and one Latin author ;
Cicero, Tusc. Disputations, books i., ii.;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Isocratis Pancgyricus ;
An histoiical book of the New Testa-
ment ;
Church Catechism ;
Gospel of St. Luke ;
Palcy's Evidences ;
Euclid, books i.-iv. and vi.;
Algebra, to end of binomial theorem ;
Trigonometry, to end of solution of
triangles ;
Optics ;
Astronomy ;
Sound and the Theory of Light ;
Surveying ;
Practical Chemistry ;
Geology.
Third year :
Two Greek and two Ijitin authors j
Greek and Roman History ;
Latin Prose Composition ;
Old and New TestJimont History ;
An historical book of the New Testa-
ment ;
Articles of the Church of England ;
Euelid ;
Algebra, to end of binomial theorem ;
Trigonometry, to end of solution oi
triangles ;
Mechanics ;
Hydiostatics, Onti^r, ^
Astronomy ;
Sound and the Theory of Light j
Fortification ;
Applied Chemistry ;
Geology ;
Physiology ;
Moral Science ;
History of Philosophy.
CHAPTER VII.
SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES.
1. Schools for Orphans.
Schools or asylums for orphans exist in various parts of
Upper Canada; but they are chiefly under the control of some
particular religious denomination. The principal ones are
the Protestant Orphans' Home, Toronto, and the lioman
Catholic Orphans' Homes, in Toronto, Hamilton, Kings-
ton, &c. Two very useful institutions, called respectivelj'-,
the Boys' Home, and the Girls' Home, exist in Toronto,
and are supported b)'' private subscriptions.
2, Deaf and Dumb School.
Althougli the legislature authorized the expenditure of
$40,000, in 1854, for the erection of suitable buildings for a
30
J
;
i'
i
'I
468 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EitUCATION IN UPPER CANADA,
deaf and dumb asylum, yet up to the present time, no
public moneys have been applied to these objects. In 1858,
however, a private school was opened in Toronto ; and soon
a society was formed to provide a permanent school for these
unfortunates. The school is now in active operation, and
is supported by public aid and private contributions, and
educates ab: ' twenty out of the three hundred deaf mutes
who are at present in Upper Canada.
3. Schools for Juvenile Oriminals.
Until very recently, the only place for the confinement
of convicted juvenile criminals was in the provincial peni-
tentiary at Kingston. As their numbers increased, this
place was deemed unsuitable for them, and a reformatory
school was opened in the old government barrack at Pene-
tanguishene. The institution is wholly supported by the
government, and is well managed. The number of inmates
at the end of 1861 was about one hundred.
CHAPTER Vm.
SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES.
aper of this character it would be scarcely proper
./ paba over, without some notice, those numerous supple-
mentary agencies which, although not professedly educa-
tional in thcaiselves, do, nevertheless, perform an important
part in tL ■' educ: on of the people. We therefore select the
more promiiK ' these agencies, and briefly refer to them
in the follow! ^rder : —
1. Mechanic 'institutes.
There are )Out ninety cities, towns and incorporated
villages in Upper Canada. In nearly every one of these
municipalities there is a mechanics' institute, in a more or
less flourishing condition. The primary object of these
;imc, no
In 1858,
md soon
for these
tion, and
ions, and
af mutes
liinement
cial peni-
ascd, this
formatory
c at Fenc-
ed by the
Df inmates
INCIES.
ely proper
us supple-
dly educa-
important
e select the
fer to them
icorporated
le of these
1 a more or
et of these
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 469
institutes is to afford to the industrial classes of the commu-
nity permanent sources of intellectual instruction, relaxation,
and amusement, by means of classes, popular lectures, and
libraries. In some places these objects have been fully re-
alized, and many young men have by their influence been
attracted from the saloons and the theatre ; but in a great
many instances no such influence has been exerted, and the
institutes exist only in name.
Foremost among these institutes is the central and con-
trolling institution, called the Board of Arts and Manufac-
tures. This board was established in 1857 by an act of the
provincial legislature, for the purpose of affording "encour-
agement to arts and manufactures, and stimulating the inge-
nuity of the mechanic and artisan by means of prizes and
distinctions," &c. The board consists of the minister of
agriculture; the chief superintendent of education for
Upper Canada; the professors and lecturers on physical
science in the various chartered colleges; the presidents
of boards of trade, mechanics' institutes, and arts associa-
tions; and one delegate for every twenty members of
a mechanics' institute who are working mechanics or man-
ufacturers. In order to give a practical character to its
operations, the board has issued a programme establishing a
system of annual examinations of the members of the me-
chanics' institutes, and awarding three grades of certificates
in about twenty-six departments of study. The object
of the board is to induce the formation of permanent edu-
cational classes in the various mechanics' institutes, and the
sending up of members to compete by examination for the
prizes and medals offered by the board. The board pub-
lishes a monthly Journal of Arts and Manufactures, and has
in connection with its rooms a museum containing models
of patented Canadian inventions and some specimens of
Canadian and foreign manufactures. It has also an appro-
priate ani valuable library of books of reference.
470 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
2. Various Litemry Associations^ etc.
In most of the cities and towns, and in the colleges of
Upper Canada, a literary association of some kind exi3ts,
either as a debating club, or as a Uterary society, or both
combined. The members are chiefly composed of young
men seeking to cultivate their literary tastes, to add
to their stock of knowledge, and to acquire a ready
and effective style of public speaking. As a specimen
of these societies, we may refer to the Ontario Literary
Society of Toronto. This society was established in
1856, and incorporated in 1860. The ordinary weekly
routine of its operations is thus classified: Essay writing;
reading from English authors; public and private debates;
public addresses by distinguished lecturers. In the various
colleges, these societies t.ikc their tone and colour more or
less from the ordinary pursuits of student life.
With a view to popularize the study of law, the Osgoode
Club was organized by law students in Toronto in 1848.
The object of the club is to cultivate the habit of essay
writing and especially of public speaking in the discussion
of legal subjects and constitutional questions. A literary
association with a similar object in view, but on a wider
basis, was established in Belleville, in 1855.
3. Young Men's Christian Associations.
These associations are of recent growth in Upper Canada,
and are confined to cities. Their objects arc similar to those
of kindred associations in Europe, &;c., viz.: the mental and
moral improvement of young men (especially of those
residing away from home,) and the development of Chris-
tian activity in various ways, such as tract distribution, &c.
Associations of this kind exist at London, Toronto, and
Kingston.
4. Scientific Institutes.
Of the higher class of scientific associations, only two
;ges of
. exi3ts,
or both
' young
to add
I ready
peciinen
Literary
shed in
weekly
writing ;
debates ;
e various
more or
! Osgoode
in 1848.
; of essay
iiscussion
literary
n a wider
r Canada,
ar to those
ncntal and
of those
t of Chris-
Dution, &c.
ronto, and
only two
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
471
exist in Upper Canada ; viz. : the Canadian Institute at To-
ronto and the Canadian Institute at Ottawa.*
The Canadian Insti+'ite, at Toronto, was established in
1849. At first its members consisted almost entirely of
land surveyors, civil engineers, and architects; butm 1851
its constitution was changed and a royal charter obtained,
so as to enlarge its sphere of operations and to remove the
restriction of membership to the classes named above. In
the charter, the objects of the institute were briefly described
to be " for the encouragement and general advancement of
the physical sciences, the arts, and the manufactures," " in
our province of Canada." These objects have been steadily
kept in view; and for the last twelve 3^ears from twenty to
thirty original papers on various literary and scientific sub-
jects have been annually read at the weekly meetings and
afterwards published (with other information) in the
Canadian Journal^ the organ of the institute. The number
of enrolled members is now about five hundred, and the
annual income is upwards of twenty-five hundred dollars,
including a parliamentary grant of one thousand dollars.
The Institut Canadien Francais, at Ottawa, v;as estab-
lished some years ago, and still receives an annual grant
from the legislature. It posses'^es an excellent library. Its
objects are chiefly historical. A has recently erected a
spacious building for the meetings of its members, lectures,
&c. The Emperor Napoleon recently made a donation to
the library valued at twenty-five thousand francs.
An effort was also made in December, 1861, to establish
an historical society for Upper Canada, at Toronto, but it
* It may be interesting and proper liere to state that in February, 1862, a
scientifio " Institute of Rujjert's Lond " was ostiiblished at Assiniboia under
the presidency of the Right Raverend M. Anderson, D D., Protestjint Episco-
pal bishop of Rupert's Land. From the number and eliaracter of the papers
read at the subsequent meetings of the institute we anticipate a useful career
for this valuable auxiliary to the cause of science and literature in the north-
western territories.
I
4:1'2 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
()
Was not successful. A subsequent effort was also made
in the following year to establish one at St. Catherines.
5. The Botanical Society of Canada.
The Botanical Society, at Kingston, was established in
1861, chiefly to aid in the advancement of botanical science
in Canada, in all its departments, — viz., structural, physio-
logical, systematic, and geographical, — and the application
f botany to the useful and ornamental arts. Sir William
Hooker, the eminent English botanist, at Kew, who has
already written on Canadian botany, has given his valuable
aid in the prosecution of the objects of the soci-^ty.
6. Scientific Observatories.^
There are two observatories in Upper Canada, viz., the
Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory, at Toronto,
and the Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston. The ob-
servatory at Toronto was established as one of the British
colonial observatories, in 1839, at the instance of the Bi-itish
Association for the Advancement of Science and the Koyal
Society. It was placed, by the British government, in charge
of one officer and three sergeants of the Eoyal Artillery,
and so continued for the specified period of fourteen years.
At the expiration of that time, Captain (now Lieutenant-
Colonel) Lefroy, the officer then in charge, returned to Eng-
land, and the observatory was assumed by the provincial
government, and placed in charge of a professor of Univer-
sity College, Toronto. With him were associated the three
former assistants, who were allowed to remain in Canada
for that purpose. The observatory contains the usual
scientific instruments, and is devoted to the investigation of
* It is proper, in tliis connection, to refer to the geological survey under Sir
William Logan, F.R.S., so far as it relates to Upper Canaila. The researches
of Sir William and his associates have been of tlio greatest value in developing
the mineral resources of the country. The display of these resources, which
ho was enabled to make at tlie Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 18fi2, attracted
the attention of the scientifio men of Europe to the nominal wealth of Canada,
and has reflected the highest credit upon hims' '<".
» made
les.
slied in
science
pbysio-
lication
William
vho bas
kraluable
/•iz., tbe
Toronto,
Tbc ob-
e Britisb
c Britisb
lie Royal
in cbarge
A.rtillery,
!cn years,
leutenant-
d to Eng-
provincial
f Univer-
tbe tbrce
in Canada
tbe usual
ligation of
vey under Sir
lie researches
in developing
ources, wliioh
S02, nttraoted
ilth of Canada,
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 473
botb magnetical and meteorological pbenomena; tbe rcpoita
of wbicb are of a bigbly valuable character.
Previous to bis return to England, Colonel Lefroy sug-
gested tbe establisbment of meteorological stations in con-
nection witb tbe grammar scbools of Upper Canada. In
1853, an act was passed autborizing tbeir establisbment;
and in 1855 tbe Rev. Dr. Ryerson, cbief superintendent of
education, selected tbe instruments and completed tbe
arrangements for giving effect to tbe act in tbis particular.
Up to tbe end of 1862, eigbteen stations were establisbed in
connection witb senior county grammar scbools. The result
thus far, however, bas not been satisfactory, owing to a de-
fect in tbe law in not directly providing a specific remunera-
tion for taking and recording tbe observations.
Tbe Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston, was estab-
lished in 1855, by means of private subscriptions and a
grant from the city corporation. ■ It now receives an annual
grant from the legislature. In 1861, it was transferred by
deed from tbc Corporation to the University of Queen's Col-
lege. It contains an equatorial, a reflecting telescope, and
a transit and clock.
7. Museums.
A museum of a p^reater or less extent exists in connection
O
with all the colleges in Upper Canada, and with some of the
other institutions.
The museum connected with the University of Toronto
and University College is the most valuable and extensive.
It contains nearly one hundred specimens mammalia, aflbrd-
ing examples of most of the orders, and including some
rare and bigbly interesting species, besides skulls, horns.
Of birds, there are nearly one thousand species, including
a very large proportion of the native birds, and illustrations
of most of, the recognized tribes, besides many eggs and
nests. Of reptiles, there are about seventy spocies, and of
fishes there are about one hundred and fifty, witb skeletons.
fl
w>mi
■liP'!i.. , •
( +
H^Hs
474 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
There are some good Crustacea, a few arachnida, and an ex-
tensive and valuable series of insects, illustrative of the re-
ceived divisions, and including many rare and beautiful
species. There is an extensive series, including several
thousand specimens, of the shells of molluscous animals, —
land, fresh-water, and marine, — amongst which will be
found nearly all the North American land shells, and there
are some good echinodermata and zoophyta. In botany,
there is a collection including about six thousand species,
among which will be found most of our native plants.
Some progress has been made in mounting and arranging
them. The University Museum of Mineralogy and Geology
has been but recently established. Already, however, up-
wards of six thousand specimens, with various instruments,
casts, and models, have been received from Europe, and a
special Canadian collection, increased by valuable additions
from the collection of the provincial geologists, is now
under arrangement.
The museums in Victoria College, Cobourg, and in
Queen's College, Kingston, embrace a collection of Cana-
dian and other minerals and fossils; that in Trinity College,
Toronto, contains various natural historj^, mineralogical,
and geological specimens. The museum in the Canadian
Institute, Toronto, is luort; varied, and includes numerous
specimens of natural history and geology, with Indian and
other relics. The museum connected with the educational
department for Upper Canada contains some specimens of
Canadian natural history and of Nova Scotian geology. It
also contains an extensive collection of copies of Italian,
Dutch, and Flemish paintings, and of statuary casts. Vari-
ous smaller museums exist in different parts of the country.
8. Libraries.
Not only do our collegiate and most ot our other public
institutions possess a library, but many of the public schools
have also within the last few years established them for tho
!^
an ex-
tlie re-
!autifal
several
tnals, —
m\\ be
d there
botany,
species,
plants,
ranging
jeology
ver, up-
uments,
e, and a
dditions
is now
and in
)f Cana-
College,
alogical,
knadian
umerotis
iian and
icational
mens of
logy. It
■ Italian,
3. Vari-
country.
or publio
ic schools
m for tho
trj
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 475
benefit of the pupils and rate-payers. As an approximation
to the number of volumes in the libraries named, we insert
the following table compiled from the best sources at our
command: —
University of Toronto and University College, .
" Victoria College, Cobourg,
" Queen's College, Kingston,
" Trinity College, Toronto,. .
Regiopolis College, Kingston,
Knox's College, Toronto,
St. Joseph's College, Ottawa,
St. Michael's College, Toronto,
Upper Canada College, Toronto,
Congregatioual College, Toronto,
Belleville Seminary,
literary Institute, Woodstock,
Oagoode Hall, Toronto,
Canadian Institute, Toronto,
French Canadian Institute, Ottawa,. . . .
Educational Department, U. C,
Board of Arts and Manufactures,
Mechanics' Institute, Toronto,
" Kingston,
Hamilton and Gore Mechanics' Institute,
Mechanics' Institute, Ottawa,
" London,
Mercantile Library Association,
Publio School Libraries, 48
Sunday School Libraries, l,81r>
Jail and Asylum Libraries, 22
Misoellaneous Libraries,
Grand total, 2,401
15,500
1,000
3,000
3,500
2,500
4,000
2,000
1,500
500
2,260
8,000
2,600
2,000
1,050
5,400
2,300
2,740
193,258
288,664
3,218
544,990
In connection with the foregoing, it may be interesting to
show what has been the extent of the demand for books in
Canada during the last twelve years. The facts arc highly
encouraging, and speak well for the prevalence of an enlight-
ened literary taste and growing intelligence among the
various classes of the people.
The following statistical table, which has been compiled
from the trade and navigation returns for the province,
shows the gross value of printed books (not maps or school
apparatus) imported into Canada during the twelve years
specified, as follow, —
■
i ;
!
f
1
i 1
liif
I n
if!
U'
476 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
Value of Books Value of Books Total Value of
Year. entered at ports entered at ports Hooks imported
in Lower Canada, in Upper Canada, into the Province.
1850, 8101,880.... $141.700.... $243,580
1851, 120,700.... 171,732.... 292,432
1852, 141,176.... 15!),2«)8.... 300,444
1853, 158,700.... 2.54.280..., 412,980
1854, 171,452.... 307,808.... 479,260
1855, 194,356 338.792.... 5.33,148
1856, 208,636 427;992.... 636,628
1857, 224,400.... 309,172..., 533,572
18.')8, 171,255.... 191,942.... .363.197
1859, 139,057.... 184,304.... 323,261
1860, 155,604.... 2.52,.5iU. . . . 408,108
1861, 185,612.... .344,621.... 530,233
$1,972,828. . . .$3,084,115.. . .$5;O50;943
Up to 1854, the trade and navigation returns give the
value on books entered at every port of C.inada separately ;
after that year, the reports give the names of the principal
ports only, and enumerating the rest as other ports. In.
1854, (a fair average year,) the proportion entered in Lowei
Canada was within a fraction of a third part of the whole ;
and, accordingly, in compiling this table for the years 1855-
61, the value entered in other ports is divided between Up-
per and Lower Canada, in the proportion of two-thirds to
the former and one-third to the latter.
CHAPTER IX.
ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO EDUCATION.
It is not easy to form an estimate of the number or extent
of these additional supplementary aids to education in
Ujjpcr Canada. They are very numerous and diversified,
and are difficult to classify. In a summary sketch like this,
no aid to education however humble, should be overlooked ;
for each in its place performs an important function, and con-
tributes materially to the progress of knowledge and intelli-
gence among the people.
Among these additional supplementary aids we may enu-
merate the following, although we can, in many cases,
scarcely classify them, or estimate their number: —
1. The religious, educational, literary, scientific, and seo-
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPIER CANADA. 477
ular press; 2. Bible and tract societies; 3. Eeliglous meet-
ings, sermons, and lectures; 4. Mercantile library associa-
tions and reading rooms; 5. Agricultural and horticultural
associations, and their exhibitions; 6. Youthful asylums
and similar benevolent institutions.
These all perform their duty silently and effectively.
Separately they are diverse, both in their character and op-
eiations; but, combined, they form an active supplementary
agency in the after-training of an individual. They culti-
vate liis intellect, call forth his benevolence, promote his
taste, extend the range of his sympathies, and give an ad-
ditional interest to his daily life. Each one, also, having a
definite object of pursuit, or taste, or benevolence, give a
concentration of purpose or effort, and thus supply a want
which mere educational training could not furnish.
Upper Canada is yet in comparative infancy, but she may
well be proud of her educational resources. They are princely
in their character and priceless in their worth. They demon-
strate that her inner life is vigorous and active; and that if
she fails in her high destiny, as the brightest colonial jewel
in the crown of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, the
fault rests with herself.
As these resources have accumulated and have come
down to us in such rich abundance, let us sacredly guard
them and seek to extend their value and usefulness. Taking
warning by other nations, let us neither dwarf their growth
nor extinguish their light; but, through God's blessing, let
us transmit them undiminished and unimpaired to our sons
who must soon come after us.
PAET THIRD— CHAPTER I.
VARIOUS ENDOWMENTS AND SUMS AVAILABLE FOR EDUCA-
TIONAL PURPOSES IN UPPER CANADA.
I. THE EDUCATIONAL LANDS ENDOWMENT.
Through the munificence of the King and others, the
following lands were set apart for the objects named: —
I ; ■
■ !
.1 '■
ii
,;l,
J-L
W
im
liifefel >.
478 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA.
Acrei.
1. Cointy Grammar Schools, 258,;530
2. University Institutionfl, 226,200
3. Upper Canada College, 66,000
4. Trinity Colleze (from private sources,) 23,590
5. Half of the Parliamentary Appropriation of one million acres of > cqa qaq
Land for Common Schools in each part of the province,. . . J '
Grand total number of acres, 1,074,120
11. THE STATE ENDOWMENTS OF EDUCATION, ETC. (1862.)
1. Parliamentary Grant to Superior Education (i. e.,
Colleges and Universities,) $20,000
Less applied to Grammar Schools, as below, .... 3,200
$16,800
9. Income of University College, Toronto, and Upper
Canada College (from Lands,) etc., about. . . . 75,000
3. Parliamentary (irant to Grammar Schools, from
Lands, (tec, 22,619
Parliamentary Grant to Grammar Schools,
$10,000, and 83,200, (as above,) 13,200
35,819
Parliamentary Grant to three Medical Schools,. . 3,000
Parliamentary Granta to three Literary Institu-
tions, &c., 1,800
Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories, 5,300
10,100
$137,719
4. Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, from
Lands, &c., 186,032
Gnuid total Annual Endowment, $323,751
III. — INCOME FROM LOCAL SOURCES — SCHOOL RATES, FEES, ETC.
\ . Colleges, &c., (I860,) $33,750
2 Grammar Schools (1861,) 48,470
3. (a.) Common Schools (1861,) by trustees, 937,014
(6.) " " by municipal tax, 278,085
4. Private Schools (1861,) 45,393
Gi-and totjil Annual Income from Taxes, Fees, &o., $1,342,712
IV. THE NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND VALUE OF THE EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS OF UPPER CANADA.*
In Upper Canada there are the following educational in-
stitutions, viz.: —
* In many instances the information contained under this head is necessarily
defective. Circulars were sent to the various institutions named, but repliee to
several questions were notreoeived. And in some instanoes no reply wliatever
was received.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 479
Name, or DcscniPnoir of Ik-
8TITUTIOW.
I.Toronto University, includ-
ing University College,...
3. Victoria College University,
{!'ol)(nirg
3. Qneon's (^)llege University,
Kingstiiii
4. Trinity College University,
'J'oronto,
Four Human Catholic Col-
leges, viz.:
1. St. .loseph's ('ollege, Ottawa
2. Regiopolis College, K'gston
3. St. Miclmel's (College, T'nto
4. L' Assoniption College,
Sandwich,
Two Theological Colleges *
exclusively, viz.:
1. Knox College, Toronto,. . . .
2. Corigregiitionai College of
U. No. Aiiiericn, Toronto
Three Collegiate Seminaries,
viz.:
1. Belleville Seminary,
2. Cnnudian Literary Institute,
Wootlstock,
3. Wesleynn Female College,
Hnmilton,
Tuio RoyalOrammar Schoolt,
<$-c., »ii.;
1. Upiier Canada College, T'no
2. Model Grammar School, ''
Three Kormal and Model
ifchooh, viz.:
1. Normal School, Toronto,.. .
2. Boys' Model School, " ...
3. fJirls' Model School, " ...
County Grammar Schooit.
80 (irumnmr Schools.
Three Industrial Schools,viz. '
I. Friends' Seminary, near I'io-
ton, ,
3. Indian Industrial School,
Alnwick,
3. Indian Industrial School,
Monnt KIgin
4019 FJemr.ntury Schools,viz..
(1.) a.UlO Common Schools,. .
(2.) 10!) Roman Catholic Sepa
rate Schools,
351 ^Miscellaneous, viz.:
(1.) 30 Indian School
(2.) 320 Private Schools,
(3.) 1 Deaf and Dumb School,
Toronto,
or 4,477 Educational Institu-
tions, in alt, in U. Canada.
Grand Total, for U. Canada,.
S *>
12
20
18
7
12
12
11
10
8
127
S
2
2
4,180
160
35
400
« 3
250
200
160
40
50
100
100
50
50
10
150
160
136
130
90
150
1.50
180
4,766
60
30
30
316,287
13,631
800
7,354
20
.^3
•sEi-ss
$610,000
$85,000
50,000
3,000
75,000
5,000
100.000
10,000
30,000
50,(M)0
40,000
2,000
4,000
2,000
10,000
600
30,000
4,000
1,000
800
12,500
600
10,000
800
20,000
500
10,000
1,000
800
150,000
1,200
400
400
40,000
8,000
8,500
500
5,000
250
5,000
250
2,100,000
60,000
27,000
1,000
3,000
60,000
200
2,0(K)
500
100
13,437,500
• 193,400
Citimntod
Aiiiuiiil
liicume.
•55,000
12,(H)0
13,300
17,000
6,000
12.(I(H»
8,0U()
5,000
5,001)
3,0(K)
10,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
10,000
20,000
83,000
4,000
e.'H
850
1,350,400
30,000
5,000
44,400
4,000
$1,736,800
Reli^totii
DeiiouiinAtion, or
ottierwise.
(Public.)
Wesley. Methd'st
Ch. of Scotland.
Ch. of England.
1
>R6m. Catholic
Canada Presbyt'n.
Congregational.
Meth. Episcopal.
Baptist.
Wesley. Methd'rt.
.(Public.)
Quaker.
Wesley. Methd'st.
41 11
(Public.)
Roman Catholic
Various.
(Public.)
* In addition to these purely theological colleges, there are theological faculties in the Uni
rersities of Trinity College, Toronto, and Qneen's College. Kingston, as well as the Roman
Catholic colleges at Ottawa, Kingston, and Toronto, and in the Baptist Literary Institute, a^
Woodstock.
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APFAOATUS AND EQUIFMENT 07 IBB DKITBICT_ SCHOOL AS IT WAO.
SPSOIUENS or AFFAKATUB Off TUS SCHOOL AS IT IS.
i!"
r-^
w
Jt
WAS.
BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION
IN
LOWER CANADA.
SECTION II.
par:^ first— chapter i.
EARLY EDUCATIONAL Dr^ORT IN LOWER CANADA— 1632-1759.
Althougii upwards of two centuries and a quarter nave
now passed away since the first school was opened in Lower
Canada, yet it was not until nearly a full century had
elapsed after Jacques Cartier discovered the country, that
that event took place. In 153C, Jacques Cartier first entered
the St. Lawrence; and, in 1632, Rev. Father Le Jeune
opened the first Canadian school at Quebec. He commenced
with only two pupils, — one a negro and tlie other an Indian
boy, — to whom he taught reading and writing. Next year
his school was attended by twenty boj's, chiefly Indian lads
collected by missionaries from wigwams in the neighbor-
hood. Father Le Jeune was greatly elated, and, in view
of the noble prospect before him, of christianizing the
Indian tribes, he wrote to his supeiior in France, to say that
he would not exchange his little school of savages for the
best university of Europe 1 The Indians permitted these
youth to attend the school, chiefly because they were the
less hardy and promising of their race, either mentally c
physically, and, therefore, were unequal either to the vicis-
situdes of the chase or to the endurance or strategy of war.
The restraints, however, of so monotonous a life proved too
much for their untutored natures, and they gladly made
■•/. <r
#!'
i« r
m
486 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN. LOWER CANADA.
their escape. Although these earlj efforts of Father Le
Jeune were thus unsuccessful in inducing the Indians to
benefit by his instructions, he did not despair; and, in 1635,
under the patronage of the Marquis de Gamache, he founded
the "Seminary of the Hurons," or of " Notre Dame des
Anges," afterwards known as the Jesuit College of Quebec,
lie was greatly consoled at this event, which, he said, had
been consummated " despite the powers of hell, banded in
full force against it I"
Soon afterwards, and in 1639, a young widow lady of high
rank, Madame Le Lapeltrie, laid the foundation of the con-
vent of the Ursulines at Quebec, which was designed for the
education of young Huron Indian girls. The plan, how-
ever, did not succeed.
Exactly two hundred years ago, and thirty-one years after
Father Le Jeune had opened his first school in Canada, the
distinguished Monseigneuv de Laval, the first Koman Cath-
olic bishop of Quebec, projected the Grand Seminary of
Quebec. Subsequently, having acquired land for a site, he
with great solemnity, on the l-lth of April, 1678, laid the
foundation of a new building, which he intended should be
occupied by his favourite " Seminary of Quebec."
The primary object of this institution was the education
of boys who felt an inclination for the priesthood; and such
it continued to be until the conquest in 1759. In 1668, at
the suggestion of Colbert, the celebrated finance minister of
Ijouis XIY., Bishop de Laval founded the Petit Seminary;
and an attempt was made in it to civilize, or, as it was said,
fnim 'dse, a certain number of young Indians, who were
uescined to become afterwards, among their own tribes, the
nucleus of a :nore extended civilization. Eight French and
six Indian boys were, with this object, taken as boarders
into the Petit Seminary and subj"eted to the same rules and
course of instruction. But the attempt utterly failed us it
i I
,her Le
ians to
D 1635,
bunded
ime des
Quebec,
lid, bad
nded in
of high
the con-
d for the
in, how-
ars after
lada, the
an Cath-
inary of
a site, he
, laid the
hould be
jducation
and such
1 1668, r.t
inister of
eminary ;
was said,
vho were
r'lhes, the
rench and
1 boarders
rules and
liled us it
HISTORICAL SKKTCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 487
had done before in the Jesuit College and Ursuline Convent
owing to the ungovernable conduct of the young Hurons.
In 1680, the bishop endowed the seminary with his own
patrimony; and in October, 1688, he had the satisfaction of
seeing sixty boys in attendance at its classes.* The bishop
had previously established an industrial school near Quebec,
from which the more promising young habitants were trans-
ferred to the Petit Seminary with a view to complete their
classical studies. Those who were intended for the priest-
hood first pursued their ordinary studies at the Jesuit
College, and finished their theological course at the Grand
Seminary.
In 1647, the Theological Seminary of St. Sulpice was
founded at Montreal by the clergy of St. Sulpice, in Paris.
In 1677, the King of France granted to the compagnie ae.
Montreal, Letters Patent confirming the Seminary.
Up to this time, few elementary schools existed in any
part of the country. Bishop Laval, however, with patriotic
solicitude, seconded the pious efforts of Sister Margaret
Bourgeoist to establish schools in connection with the order
of the Congregation de Notre Dame, which she founded at
Montreal in 1653. The Kecollets or Franciscans, too, kept
a good many schools in operation; and the Jesuit College,
Quebec, maintained out of its own revenues several primary
scliools under the management of ex-students of the college.
In 1680-1, His Majesty the King of France founded the
Recollet Convent, in the upper town, Quebec; and, in 1697,
the Monseigneur de St. Yalier, second bishop of Quebec,
established the convent of the Ursulines at Three Eivers.
I*". 1714, there were seventy-five pupils attending the
Quebec Seminary. In 1728, the Jesuits asked permissioa
* Tlie dress of tho pupils lUteuding tl'.e seminary was peculiar in its charac-
ter ; and consisted of a blue capot, or frock coat, with white corded seams, and
a parti-colortd sash. Thib sash has been replaced by a green one, and the dis-
tinctive dress itself has, with slight modifications, bien adojiftd id nearly all the
Roman Catholic colleges of Lower Canada at tho present time.
488 HISTORICAL SKETCH OP EDUCATION IN LOWER C ANADA.
to found a college at Montreal, and the Fr^res Charron of
Montreal proposed to employ schoolmasters in all the
parishes of the country as in France. In 1737, the brother-
hood of the Church Schools (Ecoles Chr^tiennes,) who
undertook the task of popular instruction along with the
Charron Ir^res, and a few scattered rural teachers, formed
themselves into an educational corps, the members of which
followed one system and wore the same distinctive garb.*
These praiseworthy efforts were not, however, sucf^essful ;
and the schools lang<r ;hed, owing, chiefly, to the apathy of
the government and the want of interest in the education
of their children by the settlers. In fact, from the begin-
ning, the government of the colony, unless prompted by the
French monarch or his ministers, seemed to be utterly un-
concerned as to the condition of education in the country.
" To ii,he Catholic Church," nevertheless, says Arthur Buller,
Esq., the commissioner appointed by Lord Durham to
inquire into the state of education in Lowe»* Canada, " To
the Catholic Church, [Lower] Canada is indebted for all its
early scholastic endowments; ind^^.ed, with vhe exception uf
McGill College, for all t\at at present [in 1838] exists.
The f mple estates and active benevolence of the Jesuits of
the seminaries of Quebec and ^:iontreal. aad of various nun-
neries and their missions, were devoted to the education of
the people."!
CHAPTER IL
OTATE OF EDUCATION FROM THE CONQUEST, 1769, UNTIL 1800.
Very little change took place in the stato of education in
Lower Cariada until after the conquest in 1759. The stir-
♦ Gtuni'iiu'a " Ilistoire du Canada," trauslated by Bell, vol. i., p. 205
'iovoll, Moi)t"«»l, 1860.
f Lord D.jrbarn'a Report, .\ppcnci)x (D,) p. 1, London: 1839.
r I
Ton of
ill the
rother-
1,) who
ith the
formed
which
garb.*
essful ;
atby of
ucation
? begin-
d by the
erly un-
country.
r Buller,
[•ham to
da, "To
or all its
3p*ion of
;] exists.
esuits of
ioub nun-
sation of
;til 1800.
ication in
The stir-
. I., p. 205
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDl CATION IN LOWER CANADA. 489
ring events which then transpired interfered to some extent
with the operations of the various colleges and other educa-
tional institutions ; but, as the crisis passed away, things re-
sumed their usual state. In 1773, however, the Petite Scm-
inaire, or College of Montreal was founded by the Sulpicians.
In the year following an important event occurred. The
suppression of the religious order of the Jesuits, which took
place in France in 1762, and in Italy in 1773, was, by royal
instruction, carried into effect in Canada in 1774. The
estates were, however, permitted to remain in the possession
of the surviving members of the order until March, 1800,
when they became vested in the Crown. Previous to that
time, and down to 1831, various petitions were presented both
to the governor-general and to the Imperial government,
praying that the estates might be appropriated to the pur-
poses of education, which was their original design. At
length, in that year (1831,) they were, with t'le exception
of the Jesuit College buildings at Quel c, surrendered
to the provincial parliament for the support of education.
Efforts hi\,ve since been repeatedly made to obtain possession
of the college buildings for the same educational purposes,
but hitherto without effect. In 1776, these buildings
were appropriated by the Imperial government to the pur-
poses of a barrack. The Crown has repeatedly offered to
surrender them, provided a suitable barracks be given in
exchange for them by the province. This, however, has
not been fovind practicable, and they are still used for mili-
tary purposes under the singularly incongruous name of
the " Jesuit Barracks."
In the year 178T, the Legislative council of the province,
at the suggestion of the governor-general (Sir Guy Carleton,
then Lord Dorchester,) appointed a committee to inquire
into the best mealns of promoting education. In 1789, the
coHHiittee presented their report, recommending, among
other thmgs, that un ekrnentary school be established in
i
M 1
Ilk
V K
il.
II
490 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDtJCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
each parish, a model school in each county, and a " colonial
college " for the entire province, at Quebec, endowed out
of the Jesuit estates, open to Protestants and Eoman Cath-
olics alike, and controlled by an equal number of each;
religious instruction for the students to be provided by each
church, and the visitation of the college to be vested in the
Crown. The Roman Catholic coadjutor. Bishop Bailly, ap-
proved of this scheme, while his superior, Monseigneur
Hubert, ninth bishop of Quebec, sought to have it modified.
He suggested that trie Jesuit College of Quebec should be
revived and re-endowed; that it should be first placed
under the control of the surviving members of the order for
their lives, and that afterwards it should be vested in
the Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec, as head of that
church in Canada. The titular superior of the dissolved
order, Father de Glapion, favored Bishop Hubert's plan,
and, to facilitate it, offered, on condition of receiving a fixed
stipend for the surviving members of his order, to make
over the estates to the province, to be forever applied to
educational purposes, under the direction of the Roman
Catholic bishop and his successors.
As it would be interesting to learn from a cotemporaneous
and independent source something of the state of education
in Lower Canada in those days, we make the following ex-
tract from an account of the travels of the Duke de Roche-
foucault who visited the country in 1795-9. He says,
" The Seminary of Quebec is kept by a sort of congregation
or fraternity known by the name of the Priests of St. Sul-
pice. ^ * * The estates which it possesses are consid-
erable, at least in point ol extent, and contain from fifty to
sixty thousand acres. * * * This seminary forms the
only resource for Canadian fiimilies who wish to give their
children any degree of education, and who may certainly
obtain it there for ready money. * * * Upon the
whole, the work of education in Lower Canada is greatly
i
A.
colonial
fved out
m Cath-
)f each;
by each
d in the
lilly, ap-
seigneur
nodified.
ould be
, placed
order for
ested in
, of that
dissolved
rt"s plan,
ig a fixed
to make
pplied to
e Roman
3oraneous
education
3wing ex-
ile Roche-
Ile says,
igregation
.f St. Sul-
re consid-
im fifty to
forms the
give their
■ certainly
Upon the
is greatly
I
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 491
neglected. At Sorel and Trois Rivieres are a few schools
kept by nuns ; and in other places men and women instruct
children ; but the number of schools is, upon the whole, so
very small, and the mode of instruction so defective, that a
Canadian who can read is a sort of phenomenon. * * *
The English government is charged with designedly keep-
ing the people of Canada in ignorance ; but were it sincerely
desirous of producing an advantageous change in this re-
spect, it would have as great obstacles to surmount on this
head as in regard to agricultural improvements."
In 1793, in response to a petition on the subject, the first
house of assembly which was ever convened in Lower
Canada presented an address to the governor, urging upon
the Crown the propriety of giving up the forfeited estates
of the Jesuits to the control of the legislature for the
support of education in the province — a destination,
it was argued, which would, more than any other, be in ac-
cordance with the design of those who had endowed the
order with these lands, and with the spirit of the letters-
patent of the French monarch which confirmed them to the
order for educational purposes only. No answer having
been given to this address, another on the same subject was
presented to the governor in 1800.
CHAPTER III.
UNFULFILLED PROMISES, AND FAILURES— 1801-1818.
In reply to this address, the governor, in a speech to the
legislature in 1801, thus intimated the intentions of the Im-
perial government to give practical effect to the wishes
of the legislature, though in another form, and to set apart
a portion of the Crown domain — as had been intimated
four years before in Upper Canadar- for the permanent es-
I
•i
I
'!!'
■^'^i
tfltii
i^'i. '
!l
h i^i
I
ft
i
f' !,
492 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
tablishment of public schools. " "With great satisfaction,"
he said, " I have to inform vou that His Majesty [George
III.] from his paternal regard for the welfare and prosperity
of his subjects in this colony, has been graciously pleased
to give directions for the establishing of a competent
number of free schools, for the instruction of their children
in the first rudiments of useful learning and in the English
tongue and also as occasion may require, for foundations of
a more enlarged and comprehensive nature ; and His Majesty
has been further pleased to signify his royal intention that
a suitable propoition of the lands of the Crown should be
set apart and the revenue thereof applied to such pur-
poses."*
In the same year, an act was passed to give effect to these
promises. It provided for the establishment of free schools
and of a " Koyal Institution for the Advancement of
Learning." To this corporation was entrusted the entire
management of all schools and institutions of royal founda-
tion in the province, as well as the administration of all
estates and property appropriated to these schools. The
governor was authorized to establish one or more free
schools in each parish or township, as he might see fit,
upon the application of the inhabitants. He was also au-
thorirsed to appoint the masters, and to tix their salaries.
Thi^ grants of land from the public domain for the endow-
ment of these schools not having been made, as y)romised,
the executive council recommended to the governor that
sixteen townships of the waste lands of the Crown be appro-
priated for this purpose, in concurring in this recommend-
ation, a further promise was made that each of the cities of
Quebec and Montreal should receive an additional grant
* Tlie language of this intimation of the royal will, in regard to the est;ib-
iishm^nt of schools in Lower Canada and their endowmfut out of the public
domain, is almost identical with that used in the Duke of Portland's despatch
to the governor of Upper Canada, in 1797. (See page 376 of this paper.)
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDCCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 493
action,
[George
osperity
j)leased
mpetent
children
English
itions of
Majesty
ion that
ould be
jch pur-
t to these
e schools
ment of
:ie entire
,1 founda-
on of all
)l8. The
nore free
it see fit,
5 also au-
darios.
le endow-
promised,
rnor that
be appro-
jommend-
e cities of
nal grant
to the t'stiib-
of tho public
id's (k'spatoh
» paper.)
of twenty thousand acres of land for the support of a sem-
inary therein. Notwithstanding these distinct promises,
none of these gr«irits were ever made ; and, consequently,
the act of 1801 practically remained a dead letter. Other
causes contributed to render the scheme a failure. Of the
eighteen trustees of the Eoyal Institution (who were not ap-
pointed by the government to direct the system of educa-
tion in Lower Canada until 1818,) four only were Roman
Catholics; and of the fourteen Protestants, three were
prominent officials in Upper Canada. The teachers, too,
were principally from Britain, unacquainted with the French
language, and generally ignorant of the habits of the people.
In 1804, the Seminary of Nicolet was founded by the
Rev. M. Brassard, cur^, and in 1811, the College of St. Hy-
acinthe was founded by the Rev. M. Girouard, cur6.
In 1812, the legislative council voted an address to the
Prince Regent, in regard to the land endowments, similar to
those passed by the house of assembly in 1793 and 1800.
It was sent down to that house for its concurrence; but,
owing to the more pressing importance of matters arising
out of the war with the United States in that year, it waa
suffered to remain in abeyance.
In 1814, however, a bill was passed by the house of assem-
bly, amending the " royal institutions " act of 1801. Asa
matter of curiosity, we give the following abstract of some of
its clauses. It provided, amonj^ other things, that if a ma-
jority or fifty landholders in a parish or township wished to
establish a school, they should serve a " notorial acte "
upon a resident militia officer highest in rank''*", who shall then
call a meeting for the election of five trustees, one of which
to retire ^annually. These trustees, with the senior magis-
trate, cur6, or minister, were to be a corporation, and to re-
* It is a singular fact that this calling into requisition the services of militia
officers, as such, in educational matters, has been peculiar to Lower Canada
■inoe the first establishment of public dchools.
' t *
r[ <» .
mi'
ifK
i*-^
I. <■
m^M
iJ't'3t'...,v: ■',:,<]
494 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
place the school commissioners appointed by the governor
under the previous act. The teacher to be employed by
this corporation was required to produce a certificate of
loyalty and good character from two magistrates, to take
the oath of allegiance, and to receive not more than two hun-
dred and forty dollars per annum out of the provincial reve-
nue. Two magistrates, appointed by the Crown, to act as
school visitors. This bill was lost in the legislative council,
and failed to become law.
In 1818, a much simpler act was passed by both houses
of the legislature. Instead of elective trustees, it provided
that the rector, priest, or curate, with four Roman Catholic
or Church of England church-wardens, the seigneur primi-
tif, and senior magistrate, should be, ex officio, a corporation
for the management of the elementary school of the pa^-ish.
This act was reserved for the royal assent, which it never
received; and, consequently, it never took effect.
In this year, however (1818,) practical effect was, after a
long delay, given to the act of 1801, authorizing the estab-
lishment of a " Royal Institution for the Advancement of
Learning." All the schools then receiving government
aid were placed under the control of this corporation. In
order to conciliate those more immediately concerned, and
to demonstrate the liberality of the principles upon which
it intended to act, the following rules were promulgated:
" That every schooi should be placed under the immediate
inspection of the clergy of the religion professed by the in-
habitants of the spot ; and that where they might be of dif-
ferent persuasions, the clergy of each church should have
the superintendence of the children of their respective com-
munities." " That a regular superintendence of the schools
was assigned to visitors named by the corporation (one or
more to be the minister or ministers of the parish or town-
ship,) who were to report *o them, every six months, the
ill
lA.
overnor.
ojed by
icate of
to take
Itwo hun-
dal reve-
to act as
council,
1 houses
provided
Catholic
ur primi-
rporation
le pansh.
it never
as, after a
|the estab-
jement of
vernment
ition. In
rned, and
)on which
mul gated :
mmediate
by the in-
be of dif-
3uld have
ctive com-
he schools
on (one or
1 or town-
lonths, the
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEU CAKADA. 495
number and progress of the scholars, the conduct of the
masters, and, generally, on the state of the schools."
Notwithstanding the official prestige which it possessed,
and the influence which it undoubtedly exerted, the " Eoyal
Institution " signally failed to accomplish the objects for
which it was established. Even the number of schools
under its management soon began to diminish; and, at the
end of ten years from the date of its organization, all ai)pli-
cations for schools to be placed under its control entirely
ceased. Various causes contributed to render the scheme
abortive; but the most striking one was the general absence
of sympathy between the board itself and the people whose
educational interests it sought to promote. The board has
long ceased to control the public elementary schools, and its
functions are now chiefly confined to the oversight or
trusteeship of the University of McGill College, Montreal.
This institution, founded, in 1811, by the will of the Hon.
Peter McGill, did not receive its royal charter until 1821j
owing to a protracted lawsuit to test the validity of the will.
CHAPTER lY.
COMMON SCHOOL LEGISLATION— SUCCESS AND FAILURES—
1819-1835.
Foil several years after the Royal Institution came into
existence, various efforts were made by either or both
branches of the legislature, to introduce a more popular
system of manage ment into the public schools. Thus, in
1819 and 1820, X\wo bills were passed by the house of assem-
bly and legislative council with this view; but they were not
concurred in by the home government; while two others,
passed by the house of assembly, in 1821 and 1823, were
rejected by the legislative council, and, consequent^ st.
At length, in 1824, a special committee, appoiii oy the
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496 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
house of assembly, prepared an elaborate report upon the
state of education in the province. Its revelations were
startling indeed. It represented that in many parishes not
more than five or six of the inhabitants could write ; that,
generally, not above one-fourth of the entire population
could read; and that not above one-tenth of ihem could
write, even imperfectly.
To remedy this state of things, and to meet the wisjies of
the Roman Catholic clergy in some degree, as a counterpoise
to the more Protestant Royal Institution act, a measure was
passed this year (1824) known as the Fabrique act. It pro-
vided for the establishment of one school in each Roman
Catholic parish, for every one hundred families, by the Fa-
briques, or corporate body, (established by the old laws of
France,) consisting of the cur6 and church-wardens. The
corporation was authorized to acquire land, for the support
of the school, to the annual value of two hundred dollars,
and to retain an acre for a school site.
In 1825, the College of Ste. Th(5r^se was founded in the
county of Teirebonne, by the Rev. M. Ducharme, cur<5; in
182G, the College of Chambly was founded in the county
of that name by the Rev. M. Mignault, cur6; and, in 1827,
the Colhige of Ste. Anne la Pocatiere was founded in the
county of Kamouraska by the Rev. M. Painchaud. In
1827-8, the University of McGill College, after a protracted
delay, at length went into operation. In 1828, the convent
of La Providence was founded by Madame Gamelin, of
Montreal.
In 1329, another effort was made to meet the wishes
of the Roman Catholic clergy, and to modify the provisions
of the Royal Institutions act of 1801. After some difficulty
in bringing both parties to an agreement on the subject, a
bill was passed in the legislative council, and received two
readings in the house of assembly, providing for the ap-
pointment of two committee? uf the Royal Institution, —
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 497
one exclusively Eoman Catholic and the other Protestant.
Thup was introduced the germ of the present separate
school system in Upper and Lower Canada ; but, owing to
some legal impediments in the way of carrying it into
effect, the bill was dropped.
In the same year (1^29,) an important step was taken in
the direction of popularizing the system of public schools
then in existence. A measure was passed in that year, pro-
viding for the establishment of schools by trustees elected
for that purpose by the landholders of each pt^rish. The
act contained no provision for the visitation or inspection
of the schools; and was otherwise defective; but it is, never-
theless, considered as the first general elementary school act
of Lower Canada.
This act was amended in 1830, so as to authorize the elec-
tion, as trustees, of the Protestant or iloman Catholic
clergy who were not freeholders. It further required the
teacher to hold a half-yearly examination, of which he
should give one week's public notice; twelve hundred
dollars were also appropriated by it for sending a person
abroad to learn how to conduct a deaf and dumb school.
This act was again amended in 1831, so as to provide for
the appointment of nineteen visitors, or local county school
inspectors, who, in company with the county member, or a
magistrate, commanding officer of militia, rector, or cn/6,
should visit and inspect the school and report the result to
the governor. The act also contained an appropriation in
aid of a deaf and dumb institution.
In the same year (1831,) the house of assembly appointed
a standing committee of eleven members, to report, from
time to time, on all matters relating to education. This
committee, in their report, dwell on the importance of sup-
plementing the public aid by local contributions, and
deprecated the growing demand for such aid, without cor-
responding exertions to increase the amount of these
r i
498 HISroRICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
contributions. The committee further remark, that the
proportion of children attending schools in Lower Canada
is only one in twelve, while, in the state of New York, it is
one in four.
In the following year (1832,) the three preceding acts of
1829, 1830, and 1831 were repealed, and a more general
and comprehensive school act substituted in their place.
Among other things, this act provided for the establishment
of a girls' school in each parish, and the yearly distribution
of two dollars' worth of prizes by the senior county member
in each boys' school. It also provided that legislative
councillors, me'iibers of parliament, senior magistrates,
highest militia officers, and the rector or chief minister of the
denomination most numerous in the parish, should be
county school visitors. These school visitors were invested
with extensive powers. Among other things, they were
authorized to decide disputes about school -houses, form and
alter the boundaries of school divisions, and fix the site for
a superior school in each county. The teacher was required
to obtain a certificate of character and qualification, signed
by at least five school visitors, including the county member
and rector; to keep the school open at least one hundred
and ninety days in the year, from nine to twelve, and from
one to four o'clock each day; to keep a school journal;
and to hold a public examination of his school.
In tlie same year (1832,) L'Assomption Cc^llegc was
founded in the county of that name by the Rev. M. Labelle
and Dr. J. B. Mcillcar (afterwards superintendent of edu-
cation for Lower Canada, i.e., from 18-11 to 1855.)
In 1833, this act was amended so as to authorize superiors
and pi-ofessors of colleges and academies, and presidents of
all educational societies, to act as school visitors. It further
granted sixteen dollars per annum extra to any teacher
who could teach both the French and English languages,
and two dollars for prizes in girls' schools.
hat the
Canada
3rk, it is
; acts of
general
r place,
lishment
Tibution
member
gislative
^istrates,
,er of the
ould be
invested
ley were
form and
e site for
required
n, signed
■ member
hundred
and from
journal ;
logo was
I. Labolle
it of cdu-
)
superiors
?idents of
It furtlier
y teacher
anguages,
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 409
In 1834, the act of 1832 was further amended, so as to
authorize an extra grant of forty dollars per annum to the
best teacher in the county, who had taught French and En-
glish, grammar, geometry, and book-keeping in his school.
In case none of the teachers merited the grant, the school
visitors had it in their power to appropriate two hundred
dollars to any superior institution in the county, not receiv-
ing other public aid, in which those branches were taught.
CHAPTER V.
FINAL EDUCATIONAL MEASURES OF THE LOWER CANADA LEG-
ISLATURE—CONTESTS—FATAL DEFECTS OF TEMPORARY
LEGISLATION— 1836-1840.
In 1836, the standing committee of the house of assem-
bly, in their report, regret that the liberality of the legisla-
ture, instead of stimulating local liberality in aid of education,
had rather paralyzed it. As a proof of the unreasonable self-
ishness of the parties concerned, they state that an application
had been received from three families to constitute them a
school division, so as to receive public aid as such. They
also comment upon the universal incompetency of school-
masters; and recommend the establishment of normal
schools. An act was passed giving effect to this recom-
mendation, and providing for the establishment, for live
years, of a normal school at Montreal and at Quebec. Six-
teen hundred dollars were granted to ich school, for pre-
liminary expenses in procuring professors and obtaining
books, maps, and apparatus, &c. ; and thirty -four hui.^lred
dolhirs per annum for current expenses; besides four hun-
dred and eighty dollars per annum for the board and
lodging of at least five teachers for three years, at the
school. The same sum was granted for a like period to
each of the convents of the Ursulines at Quebec and
32
*''■
Bsssa
I ' «<
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500 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWiiR CANADA.
Three Rivers, and to the convent of the congregation of No-
tre Dame, at Montreal, for the training of at least five female
teachers for three years in these institutions.
A supplementary bill (continuing the system of element-
ary schools in Lower Canada, and designed to replace the
school act of 1832, which had expired) was passed by the
house of assembly, simultaneously with the normal school
act ; but it was rejected by the legislative council. Two fea-
tures in the rejected bill were new and deserve notice.
The first was the permission to establish model schools,
and the other was the authority (not compulsory) of the
majority of the inhabitants to raise a rate by tax to support
the school. As the usefulness of the one act depended on
the passing of the other, the rejection of the elementary
school act brought the whole educutiojal system to a stand-
still. In the mean time a normal school was opened at
Montreal by the Rev. John Holmes, principal of the Semin-
ary of Quebec, aided by two assistants, — one obtained from
France and the other from Scotland. In consequence, how-
ever, of the political troubles of the succeeding year, the
school was abruptly closed, and the grants suspended.
It is proper to state, that the reasons for rejecting the bill
of the house of assembly by the legislative council, were
candidly expressed in a report on the subject. This report
stated that the expenditure on behalf of education, for the
last seven years, had already reached the aggregate su.n of
$600,000, and that the appropriations under this bill amounted
to $160,000 per annum. The committee of the legislative
council concurred with the houscof assembly in the belief that
this liberal legislative aid had superseded, rather than stim-
ulated, local effort. They further deprecated the anomalous
and improper practice of confiding the superintending and
application of the educational grant to members of the
house of assembly. It was liable in their hands, the com-
mittee urged, to be used to promote political and party ob-
ve female
f element-
Bplace the
ed by the
lal school
Two fea-
ve notice.
3I schools,
-y) of the
to support
pended on
3lementary
to a stand-
opened at
the Semin-
;ained from
lence, how-
g year, the
jnded.
;ing the bill
uncil, were
This report
tion, for the
Tate su.il of
ill amounted
e legislative
le belief that
r than stim-
e anomalous
tending and
bers of the
ds, the corn-
id party ob-
3
SI
I
II
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 501
jects rather than strictly educational ones. In this part
of their report, the committee enumerate, under nine differ-
ent heads, the extraordinary and irresponsible powers which
were conferred upon the county members by this and pre-
ceding school acts, in the administration of the law, and the
expenditure of the legislative school grant.*
The political troubles which, in 1837-8, shook the prov-
ince to its center and paralyzed its educational efforts,
having to some extent subsided, an inquiry into the state
of education, and the causes of its failure in Lower Canada,
was instituted, in 1838, by the Earl of Durham, Her
* Arthur Buller, Esq., commissioner, appointed in 1838 by Lord Durham,
to inquire into the state of education in Lower Canada, in reviewing the pro-
ceedings of the legislature of that province, in regard tt» its system of tempo-
rary or party political legislation in educational matters, uses the following
striking language : —
" Another great evil to which this system was subjected by its connection
with politics, was its want of permanency. Every alternate year it was liable
to expire altogether, or undergo modifications, which, as regarded those em-
barlied in it, in many cases, amounted to expiration. The house of assembly
knew well the power which they derived from their common habit of temporary
legislation. It was no slight hold to possess in the country, this of continuing
or at any given time withholding its sole means of education. It is true that it
would be almost impossible to make a system permanent which was to be sup-
ported entirely by legislative grants. » * • I trust that I have not done
injustice to the house of assembly. * * * It is extremely difficult to ap-
portion to them their proper share of praise and blame. * * • In the bill
of 1814-31, their main struggle was to subject the school system to popular
control. * * * The standing committee of the house labored diligently
and in good faith. They received evidence on all points. They did not
shrink from the investigation of alleged abuses, nor, in many instances, from
the application of proper remedies. » * * They knew * * * that
nothing short of compelling the inhabitants to contribute a direct and not
scanty proportion towards the expense of the system. They saw all this ; but
they did not dare to propose bo unpopular a measure. In short, the moment
they found that their educational provisions could be turned to political account,
from that moment those provisions were framed with a view to promote party
rather than education. This was their esaential fault ; this it was that pervaded
and contaminated the whole iiystem and paralyzed all the good that was other-
wise in it."
#
502 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA
Majesty's lord high commissioner and governor-general of
British North America. This duty he confided to the able
hands of Arthur Buller, Esq., one of his suite, who pre-
pared an elaborate and comprehensive report on the subject,
from which we have already made several extracts. Lord
Durham, also, from his own observation, gave expres-
sion to his views on the subject, and from his own report
we make the following extracts: " The bulk of the popula-
tion is composed of the hard-working yeomanry of the
country districts, commonly called hahitans. * * * It
is impossible to exaggerate the want of education among
them, no means of instruction have ever been provided
for them, and they are almost universally destitute of
the qualifications even of reading and writing. * * *
The common assertion, however, that all classes of the Ca-
nadians are equally ignorant, is perfectly erroneous; for I
know of no people among whom a larger provision exists
for the higher kinds of elementary education, or among
whom such education is really extended to a larger propor-
tion of the pop ilation. The piety and benevolence of the
early possessors oi the country founded, in the seminaries
that exist in difierent parts of the province, institutions of
which the funds and activity have long been directed to the
promotion of education. Seminaries and colleges have
been, by these bodies, established in the cities and in other
central points. The education given in these establishments
greatly resembles the kind given in the English public
schools, though it is rather more varied. It is entirely in
the hands of the Catholic clergy. The number of pupils
in these establishments is estimated, altogether, at a thousand,
and they turn out every year, as far as I could ascertain, be-
tween two and three hundred young men thus educated."
In concluding a review of the causes which had led to a
failure of the system of education devised by the legisla-
ture, Mr. Buller sketched the broad outlines of a system of
n\
<A.
neral of
tbe able
jho pre-
subject,
Lord
expres-
n report
; popula-
f of tbe
5t * It
n among
provided
titute of
* * *
»f tbe Ca-
ns; for I
ion exists
or among
31 propor-
ice of tbe
seminaries
tutions of
ited to tbe
Bges have
d in otber
alisbments
isb public
entirely in
r of pupils
thousand,
certain, be-
ducated."
ad led to a
;be legisla-
. system of
mSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEU CANADA. 503
education which, he thought, would obviate many of the
evils inherent in those systems which had already been
tried.
CHAPTER VI.
A NEW FOUNDATION LAID— FIRST STEPS ON Vv'ARD— 1841-1855.
Lord Durham having, upon a comprehensive review of
all the causes whioh had led to the then unhappy state of tbe
provinces, recommended a legislative union of Upper and
Lower Canada, nothing was attempted in the way of reviv-
ing the educational system until the question of union was
settled. That occurred in 1840; and, in 1841, the first par-
liament of United Canada gave immediate attention to the
subject of popular education. An act, embodying many
of Mr. Buller's suggestions, was passed, providing for the
establishment and maintenance of elementary schools in
Upper and Lower Canada alike. An ex-officio chief super-
intendent of education was appointed for the whole prov-
ince, with working superintendents for its eastern and
western sections. Two hundred thousand dollars were
also granted to aid in the promotion of popular education.
This sum was divided between both sections, according to
their respective populations.
In the same year. Dr. J. B. Meilleur, an active education-
alist, who had formerly been a member of the legislature,
and who had been the principal author of the projected
school act of 1836, was selected as the executive educational
officer for Lower Canada. He applied himself diligently to
the performance of his new duties ; and, after four years'
trial, he suggested such changes in the law as experience
had dictated.
In 1842, the schools of the Christian Brothers (Ecoles
I
i
f
'I *'
« I
i
r Ti
504 HI310mCAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
Chrdtiennes) were established at Quebec, by the Soci6ti5
d'Education and the Eev. Mr. Bailtargcon.
In the following year (1843,) the want of a Church of
England university and theological college having been
felt, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, in the eastern townships,
was projected, and an act of incorporation obtained for it.
The Classical High School of Quebec was also established
this year by the Eev. Dr. Cook.
In 1843, the school act of 1841 was repealed, so far as
Upper Canada was concerned, and, in 1845, it was also re-
pealed so far as it applied to " ower Canada.
In 1845, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, was formally
opened in a temporary building. The new buildings for
the college wci\3 completed in the following year.
In the law of 1846, the nominal office of chief superin-
tendent, ex officio^ was abolished, and the entire executive
administration of the school laws confided to the respective
superintendents of each section of the province. In 1846,
the school laws of Upper and Lower Canada were, after
much consideration on the part of the two superintendents,
thoroughly revised, and adapted to the peculiar educational
wants of each section, as ascertained by actual experience
and observation. A very important principle, — that of
local taxation for the support of education, — which had
been introduced with success in the Upper Canada school
law, was substituted for that of voluntary contributions, as
an experiment, into the amended Lower Canada school act
of 1846. It encountered, however, so strong an opposition
from all sides, that, in 1849, the law was altered, and local
assessment was rendered permissive — not compulsory, as
before, — and the system of voluntary contributions re-
stored.
In the year 1846, the Joliette College, in the village of
Industrie, county of Joliette, was established by the Hon
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 505
B. Joliette; and, in 1847, Masson College, in the county of
Terrebonne, was established by Madame Masson.
In 1849, an important institution for the education of
deaf and dumb males was established at Chambly by the
Kev. Mr. Lagorce; and, in 1853, one for females, at Longuo
Pointe, by the Eight Rev. Bishop Bourget. In 1849, the
College de Ste. Marie was established at Montreal by the
religious order of the Jesuits. A. chair of law was estab-
in it in 1851, and, in 1852, the college received an act of
incorporation.
In 1850, the College of Notre Dame de Levis was
founded at Point Levis (opposite Quebec) by the Eev.
Joseph Deziel. Rigaud College was also founded in the
same year by the Rev. Mr. . 'esautels.
In 1851, another effort, after a lapse of thirteen years,
was made to establish a normal school in Lower Canada.
In that year, an act was passed by the legislature for this
purpose, and also for the appointment of local school
inspectors. O'ing to various causes, however, the estab-
lishment of the normal school was deferred.
In August, 1852, an amended charter was obtained from
Her Majesty for McGill College University, and, soon after
that event, it entered upon its present succeaai"ul career.
In December of the same year, the venerable institution
known in Canada for two hundred years as the Seminary
of Quebec, was erected into the University of Laval, by
royal charter from the Queen. The university was soon
after organized on its present efficient footing.
In 1853, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, was erected into
a university by royal charter. In the same year (1853,)
the College of Ste. Marie de Monnoin, was established. In
the same year, the Church of England Society for New-
foundland and the Colonies, now known as the Colonial and
Continental Church and School Society, erected normal and
model schools in Montreal. They were opened in the fol-
ii-f
.fr?;*^-^%fff'',
V
S S
506 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
lowing your; but, in 1856, the normal school was transfer-
red to McGill College.
In 1854, the College of St. Germain de Rimouski was
founded in the county of that name by the Eev. C. Tanquay.
The Colleges of St. Francis, (Richmond,) Laval, (near Mon-
treal,) Ste. Marie de la Beauce and Verscheres, were also
established in 1854.
In 1855, after fourteen years' arduous official labors in
superintending the system of public instruction in Lower
Canada, J. B. Meilleur, Esq., M. D., resigned his office, and was
succeeded by the Hon. P. J. O'Chauveau, LL.D,, a gentleman
of literary tastes and abilities, who had been eleven years a
member of parliament for the county of Quebec, and who
had held successively the office of solicitor-general for
Lower Canada and secretary of the province. Hon. Dr.
Chauveau entered vigorously upon the discharge of his
duties, and, in his first official report to the governor-general,
suggested several important modifications and improvements
in the school law of Lower Canada.
CHAPTER YII.
NORMAL SCHOOLS— RENEWED ACTIVITY AND PROGRESS—
1856-1862.
In 1855, the Colleges, of Sherbrooke and Yarennes were
established; and in 1856, La Chute College, in the county
of Argenteuil, was projected.
In 1856, Dr. Chauveau prepared and recommended to
the government, the passage by the legislature of two im-
portant bills embracing the modifications which he had
suggested in his annual report. These bills became law in
the same year. One related chiefly to superior, and the
other to elementary, education. They provided, among
other things, for the distribution through the superintendent
DA.
transfer-
uski was
Panquay.
I ear Mon-
V7ere also
labors in
in Lower
e, and was
gentleman
in years a
and who
ineral for
Hon. Dr.
ge of his
ir-general,
rovements
ROGRESS—
snnes were
he county
nended to
3f two ini'
ill he had
ime law in
r, and the
;d, among
irintendent
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 507
of education, and upon his report, of the Lower Canada
superior education fund among the various ^-riiversity col-
leges, academies, and model schools; for the establishment
of three normal schools instead of one; the appointment of
a Council of Public Instruction for Lower Canada; the pub-
lication of Journals of Education (French and English;)
and the creation, as in Upper Canada, of a superannuated
common school teachers' fund.
In 1857, the long-delayed establishment of normal schools
at length took place. On the 2d of March, tlie Jacques
Cartier and the McGill Normal Schools were, with appro-
priate ceremonies, inaugurated at Montreal, and, in May,
the Laval Normal School at Quebec. The Jacques Cartier
Normal School (chiefly designed for Eoman Catholics,) is
placed under the immediate supervision of the Superintend-
ent of education ; the McGill School (designed for Protest-
ants,) under the management of the corporation of McGill
College ; and the Laval School (also designed for Eoman
Catholics,) under the management of the corporation of
Laval University. The French and English students in
each receive instruction in their own language. The
three schools are under the general direction and control of
the council of public instruction for Lower Canada. Males
and females attend each normal school ; and model schools,
for the purpose of practice, are attached to each of them.
Thus the last links in the chain of an efficient system of
popular education for Lower Canada have been successfully
formed. Under the active and enlightened superintendence
of the Hon. Dr. Chauveau, we have no doubt it will realize
the expectations of the friends of education, and confer in-
estimable benefits upon the youth of the country.
In 1859, the College of Three Eivers was projected in
the town of that name by Mgr. Prince, Eoman Catholic
Bishop of the Diocese ; and, in 1862, Morrin College was
founded at Quebec, under the will of Dr. Morrin, who was
R^BB
508 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
a late eminent physician in that city; and Molson Ilall
College, Montreal, was inaugurated by His Excellency Lord
Monck.
We will now refer to the principal educational institutioLS
of Lower Canada, in detail, so far as we have been able to
obtain information in regard to them.
PART SECOND— CHAPTER L
UNIVERSITIES.
1. University of Laval and the Qvehec Seminaries.*
In 1851, at the suggestion of the Roman Catholic bishop
of Montreal, Monseigneur J. Bourget, and the repeated in-
vitations of His Grace the Roman Catholic archbishop of
Quebec, the directors of the Quebec Seminary resolved to
erect the Seminary into a university.
The late Very Reverend Dr. L. J. Casault, then superior
was sent to London, in 1852, in order to solicit the granting
of a royal charter. He obtained it without difficulty; His
Excellency Lord Elgin, then governor-general of Canada,
and his ministry having been pleased to support with their
recommendation the application made to the Imperial
authorities for that purpose, it was successful.
By this charter, no change was effected in the constitution
of the seminary itself; but a council, including the direct-
ors of the institution and the three senior professors of the
several faculties, were empowered to possess and enjoy all
the privileges granted to the universities of the United
Kingdom, and especially that of conferring degrees in the
faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts. The Reman
Catholic archbishop of Quebec is, by virtue of his office,
* The information relating to the University of Laval and Quebec Seminary
was kindly furnished by the Very Reverend Dr. Taohereau, D. C. L., rector of
the University.
DA.
3on Hall
Qcy Lord
stitutioLS
a able to
lie bishop
Dcated ill-
bishop of
!Solved to
I superior
e granting
iulty; His
if Canada,
with their
Imperial
3nstitution
the direet-
3ors of the
i enjoy all
be United
xes in the
he Reman
his office,
!beo Seminary
1. L., rector of
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 509
visitor of the university,* The superior of the Grand
Seminary, for the time being, holds the office of rector.
Since the granting of the charter, unceasing efforts have
been employed to give it full effect. In 1853, five profess-
ors of the faculty of medicine were appointed. One of
them was sent to England, France, and Btigium, to pui--
chase a medical library, a museum, and a collection of
surgical instruments. During the following year, a great
number of books were procured for the faculty of law, and
also a collection for the study of materia medica. At
length, in September, 1854, lectures in the faculties of law
and medicine commenced after an inauguration ceremony,
in which Lord Elgin took part. Several buildings were
also commenced for the use of the university. They are
now completed at a cost of $208,421; $13,146 additional
have also been expended upon the library, and $6,264 for
new scientific apparatus and natural history collections. A
botanical garden is also contemplated. Three young pro-
fessors, graduates of the university, were in Europe, so as
to prepare themselves to give lectures in the faculties of
law, medicine, and arts.
His Royal Highness the Prince of "Wales visited the in-
stitution on the 22nd of August, 1860, and wag pleased to
express his satisfaction with the institution by the founda-
tion of an annual prize which bears his name.
The faculties of law f'ld medicine are now completely
organized. The faculty of arts has only three titular pro-
fessors; but several of the eleven intended courses are
already taught under the title of elementary courses.
The course of instruction embraces three years in the
faculties of law and arts, and four in those of divinity and
medicine. In the faculty of divinity, holy scripture, moral
* The name of Laval, given to this new institution, was that of the first
Roman Catholic bishop of Canada, a great promoter of education, and the
founder of the Quebec Seminary and other institutions.
rmii
If
610 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA..
and dogmatic theology, sacred eloquence, ecclesiastical bis
tory, and canon law are taught. The subjects of lec-
tures in law and medicine include those branches usually
taught in such faculties.
The library now contains twenty-eight thousand volumes;
including two thousand in the law department, four thou-
sand in that of medicine, eight thousand in the different
branches of sciences and literature, and fourteen thousand
in the department of divinity.
Matriculation and Degrees. — The requisites for the degree
of B. A, are as follows: —
1. Every candidate shall undergo two examinations.
The first after having completed his course of rhetoric ; the
second after having terminated his course of philosophy.
The first examination embraces the following: translation
of Latin and Greek authors, Latin prose or verse ; universal
history and geography, history of Canada; the history and
principles of literature and rhetoric ; French or English
composition, at the option of the candidate.
The second examination embraces the following: a disser-
tation on logic, or on some point of metaphysics or ethics,
as decided by chance; questions on physics and chemistry;
problems and questions on mathematics and astronomy;
questions on natural history.
2. Those candidates who in both the examinat'^nh
have been placed in the first class obtain the degree of
B. A. Those belonging to the second class may attend
the courses of the university; but they are not advanced
luitil they have obtained the degree of B. A. Thos<' be-
longing to the third class obtain no privilege; it is how-
ever, permitted to them to present themselves anew for
examination.*
* The stiindards arc : first class, those who obtain two-thirds of the total
number of marlts ; second class, those who obtain more than one-third ; and
third class, those who obtain less than one-third. The Prince of Walos'i
• ' ' .!
r
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 511
The requisite for tlivj degree of M. A. is a successful at*
tendance on the obligatory courses of lectures in the faculty
during three years.
In the faculty of law, the degree of bachelor is obtained
only after having satisfactorily passed six examinations at
the end of the same number of terms. In medicine, nine
terms and nine satisfactory examinations are required.
License in these faculties, and in divinity, requires four
years of successful attendance on all the courses, with
written and oral examinations.
In order to obtain the degree of B. D., it is necessary to
pass written and oral examinations upon the several
branches taught in the Grand Seminary.
No one is admitted to the degree of doctor in any of the
four faculties unless he has publicly and successfully advo-
cated numerous theses upon most of the branches of the
respective faculties. The candidates are allowed to pass
this examination, four, three, or two years after having ob-
tained the degree of licentiate, according to the testimonial
which they received at their examination for the license;
viz., satisfactory; with distinction; or with the greatest distinc-
tion.
Students in law and medicine, whose parents are not in-
habitants of Quebec, are required to reside in the univer-
sity boarding-house. Two rooms for the use of each
student are furnished by the institution.
Besides the pupils regularly matriculated, students legally
admitted to the study of law or medicine, although they
have not followed a complete and regular course of classical
studies, have permission to attend the law and medical lec-
tures; but they can not arrive at the degrees. In the Faculty
of arts, the lectures are free for those who have already paid
for the lectures on law or medicine. Twenty half-gratuities
prize is given to the most successful candidate for the degree of B. A., provided
he Las o))taiued at lewt four-fifths of the total number of marks.
m
\
i i
«tSS?' '^'
1^1^
612 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDCOATION IN I.OWEB CANADA.
are granted to matriculated students, who have not the
means of paying the entire boarding fee.
The Quebec Seminaries {Grand and Minor.)
On the 26th March, 1663, five years after his arrival in
this province, the first Koman Catholic bishop of Canada,
Fran9ois de Montmorency-Laval founded and afterwards
(1680) endowed with his own patrimony, an institution
which was called the Quebec Seminary.
The venerable founder died on the 6th of May, 1708, at
the age of eighty-six, after having spent nearly half a cen-
tury in Canada. By his influence at the court of Louis
XIV., he contributed much to the prosperity of this prov-
ince, and constantly showed himself a most energetic and
liberal promoter of education. In 1678, he solemnly laid
the corner-stone of a fine and massive stone building, which
though twice consumed by fire (1701 and 1705,) and much
injured by shells during the siege of 1759, is still standing.
He had thus to build it three times in the short space
of twenty-seven years. Being himself so worn out by old
age and infirmities, he had, during the two calamitous fires,
to be carried out by the hands of his faithful servants.
He also founded and maintained during a quarter of a
century, at St. Joachim de Beaupr^, another institution,
which comprised a common, a normal and an agricultural
school, a model farm with apprentice shops for such trades
as blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, &c.
Before the conquest of Canada, in 1759, the seminary
had no other pupils than those intended for the church.
These also went every day to the classes of the Jesuits.
When this college was converted into a barrack, in 1776,
the seminary undertook to instruct all boys, whether in-
tended for the church or not, in a classical course of study.
The number of students has been progressively increas-
ing up to the present time. In 1668, there were only four-
teen; in 1680, forty; and in 1690, eighty. Ithas'<ow (1862)
(
DA.
not the
rrival in
Canada,
rterwards
astitution
1708, at
alf a cen-
of Louis
ibis prov-
getic and
mnly laid
ng, which
ind much
standing,
lort space
t)ut by old
itous fires,
/ants,
larter of a
nstitution,
gricultural
uch trades
; seminary
be church
be Jesuits,
k, in 1776
whether in
e of study
3ly increas
! only four
MOW (1862)
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BDUOATION IN LOWER CANADA. 513
three hundred and ninety-six in the minor seminary, or col-
lege, (of whom two hundred and thirty are boarders,) and
forty-two in the Grand Seminary, studying in divinity.
From the beginning to the present time, about one thou-
sand students have completed a regular course of classical
studies, while from ten to eleven thousand have completed
a partial course.
The estimated value of the whole premises is $500,000,
including the university and seminary buildings; viz.,
$230,000 for the university, and $270,000 for the seminary.
The library has been transferred to the university, as
well as some maps and scientific apparatus. About five
thousand volumes, expressly chosen for the students of the
grand and minor seminaries, remain in the college, and are
worth about $6,000; maps, $400. There are twenty -four
professors, besides ten officers otherwise employed.
The Grand Seminary comprises the classes of dogmatic
and moral theology, Holy Scripture, ecclesiastical history,
and jther branches. The course of studies extends to three
years at least. No one is admitted to it unless he has
followed a complete course of literature and philosophy.
The students are all boarders, and are required to wear the
clerical costume. They pay eighty dollars for board ; but
the instruction is gratuitous. A library of two thousand
volumes is at their disposal.
The Minor Seminary comprises nine classes, of which
seven are in the course of literature. Students in philoso-
phy follow the courses of the faculty of arts in the univer-
sity during the two remaining years.
In order to be admitted as a student into the minor semi-
nary, it is necessary to read the maternal tongue (French or
English) very correctly, write pretty well, and have some
knowledge of grammar.
About thirty gratuities have been founded at different
periods and by different persons (eight of them by Mon-
I
1^
; I .
^:t:
'm.
ih,.
\i 1
!.(f
lh\r
514 HISTORICAL SKEiCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
seigneur de Laval,) for the students of the minor seminary.
About one-third of these gratuities are limited to the mem-
bers of certain families.
A library of three thousand volumes is available for all
the students in the minor seminary, at one dollar per annum.
2. University of McOill College^ Montreal*
This university was founded by the will (dated in 1811)
of Hon. James McGill, a merchant in Montrcal.f Not
having any children, he bequeathed to the Royal Institution
(a corporation established by the provincial parliament,) for
the advancement of learning, his estate of Burnside, con-
sisting of about forty-six acres of land near the city, and
the sum of £10,000 in money, as a foundation for a univer-
sity. The will was contested; and, with the exception of
obtaining a royal charter in 1821, no action was taken upon
it until 1829. The first step towards the establishment of
the university was the organization, in that year, of the
faculties of arts and medicine.
In 1835, the Eev. Dr. Bethune:}: was appointed principal
of the university; and increased efforts were made towards
the establishment of the faculty of arts. After several
years' delay, it was formally opened in September, 1843, in
buildings erected for that purpose. The college, however,
did not receive adequate support; and, at length, the pro-
vincial government was moved to aid in an endeavor to
* The matirials from which this information in ref,'ard to McGill College
University is d<'rive<i was kindly furnished by the principal, J. W. Dawson,
Esq., LL.D., F.G.S.
+ Hon. James McGill was born in Glasgow, Scotland, on the 6th October,
1714. Ho emigrated, when a young man, and settled in Montreal, where he
engaged successfully in mercantile pursuits. He was elected to the house of
assembly as member for Montreal. Subsequently, he was appointed by the
Crown a member of the legislative and executive councils. In the war of
1812, he acteil as a colonel and brigadier-general of militia. He died in Mon-
*Teal on the 10th December, 1813, at the ago of sixty-nine years.
X Now (18()3) dean of Christ's Church Cathedral, Montreal.
It:
DA.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 515
jminary.
he mem-
e for all
r annum.
in 1811)
lit Not
nstitution
iient,) for
nde, con-
city, and
■ a univer-
jcption of
iken upon
shment of
ar, of the
principal
le towards
er several
, 1843, in
, liowever,
h, the pro-
ideavor to
IcGill College
W. Dawson,
e 6th October,
eal, where he
the house of
ointod by the
n the war of
died in Mon-
place it on a better footing. A new charter was obtained
in August, 1852, which contrasted favorably with the
former one in many of its most important provisions.
No aid having been received from the government, an
appeal was made, in December of the year 1856, to the
Protestant population of Montreal, which was met in a
spirit of ready and unrestrained generosity. An endow-
ment fund, amounting to $G0,000, was subscribed by a num-
ber of gentlemen, not exceeding fifty. Of this sum, $20,000
were given by the Messrs. Molson (three brothers), for found-
ing a chair of English literature ; the remainder was made
up in sums varying from $600 to $2,000. In addition to
this munificent liberality, Wm. Molson, Esq. (one of the
brothers) erected, at his own expense, a wing to the Uni-
versity, which was inaugurated by Ilis Excellency Lord
Monck, in 1862. This wing contains a spacious convoca-
tion hall, a handsomely fitted library, ai:d a chemical labor-
atorv. The whole is designated the William Molson Hall.
The growth of the University has been very rapid since
its reorganization in 1854. Its chief characteristics are :
(1.) Its religious complexion, — that is, it is Protestant, but
not denominational. (2.) Its endowment, which is owing
to the munificence of the mercantile and professional mfen
of Montreal, — it having received no permanent endow-
ment, and but a very small and uncertain annual grant
from the Legislature. (3.) The extent to which it has de-
veloped facilities for various kinds of literary, scientific,
and professional training, and, (4.) The high standard of
graduation which it has maintained. There are also several
peculiarities in its management, which, having arisen from
long experience and past failures, have proved themselves
better adapted to the circumstances of the country than
those borrowed from abroad.
In addition to the sum of $60,000, willed to the univer-
sity by Mr. Mf Gill, the land he bequeathed to it is valued
3a
516 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
at $120,000. The present va]ne of the various buildings
attached to the university is about $128,000 more. The
value of the library, museum, apparatus, &c., is estimated
at $50,000. There are 8,000 volumes in tlie library, which
is divided into three departments. There are 45 professors
and teachers of all kinds in the universitv, and in the schools
attached to it, viz., in the Faculty of Arts, 10 ; Faculty of
Medicine, 9 ; Faculty of Law, 5 ; in the Normal School,
2 ; High School, 7 ; Model School, 2 ; occasional and as-
sistant teachers, 10. The number of students attending
the university, in 1862-3, was 293 — viz., in the Faculty
of Medicine, 165 ; Faculty of Arts, 73 ; Law, 55 ; in the
Normal School, 71 ; pupils in the High School, 280, and
in the Model Schools, 300 ; total, 944.
The McGill Normal School, attached to the university,
provides the rci|uisite training for teachers of eleme tary
and model schools. Teachers trained in this school are
entitled to official certificates of qualification.
St. Francis College, Richmond, is an affiliated college ot
the university. Its matriculated students can prosecute
any part of their studies under the Faculty of Arts, and
be admitted to examination for the degree of B. A.
Under regulations for middle class examinations, the
university has appointed examinations for pupils of any
Bchool or academy, on passing which, such pupils are en-
titled to Junior or Senior school certificates of the uni-
versity. The object of these examinations, as in England,
is by active competition to encourage a better class of
schools ; to elevate the standard of education, and to in-
duce young men, about to enter into business, to pursue a
longer and more thorough course of preparatory study.
I. FACULTY OF ARTS.
1. Matriculation and Admission. — The subjects of ma-
triculation examination are as follows : — Latin Grammar ;
VNADA.
HISTORICAL 8KETCU OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 517
■buildings
ore. The
estimated
wy, wUicli
professors
tlie schools
Faculty of
lal School,
lal and as-
, attending
tie Faculty
55 ; in the
)1, 280, and
university,
eleme tary
s school are
'd college ot
11 prosecute
)f Arts, and
B.A.
nations, the
upils of any
iipils are en-
i of the uni-
i in England,
tter class of
n, and to in-
',, to pursue a
;ory study.
ibjeets of ma- j|
in Grammar ;
Gi
eck Grammar ; Caesar's Commentaries ; Sallust ; Virgil's
^neid, 1st book ; Xenophon's Anabasis, 1st book ; Arith-
metic; Algebra, to Quadratic Equations; Euclid's Ele-
ments, 3 books ; Writing English from dictation. In classics,
the amount of knowledge, rather than the particular authors
studied, will be regarded. Candidates for matriculation
as students in any special course, or for partial courses of
study, will be examined in the subjects necessary thereto,
as may from time to time be determined by the Faculty.
2. /Scholarships and Bursane^. — Sixteen scholarships
have been placed by the university at the disposal of His
Excellency, the governor-general. These entitle the holders
to exemption from tuition fees. Eight other scholarships
will be granted by the university, from time to time, to
the most successful students who may present themselves
as candidate's. One or more normal school bursaries, in
the faculty of arts, are offered for competition to students
of the third or fourth years. They entitle the holder to an
annual sum of $100, for a term not exceeding two years,
on condition that the candidate attend and practise teach-
ing in the high-school department, and subsequently to
teach for three years, in some public school or academy in
Lower Canada, after taking the degree of B. A., and a di-
ploma as a teacher of an academy.
3. Outline of the Course of Study (1.) for the degree of
B.A. — First year. — Classics; English literature; Mathe-
matics; History; Elementary Chemistry.
Second year. — Classics; French or German; Logic;
Mathematics; Botany; Elocution.
Third year. — Classics; French or German; Rhetoric;
Mathematical and Experimental Physics and Astronomy ;
Zoology.
Fourth year. — Classics; Intellectual and Moral Philos-
ophy ; Natural Philosophy and Astronomy ; Mineralogy
and Geology.
'1 :
t
«-;?!»
fli
518 HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
Undergraduates are required to study either French or
German for two years.
Students intending to join any Theological school, may
take Hebrew instead of French or German.
Students of the third or fourth years, matriculated in
the faculties of law or medicine of the university, or en-
tered as candidates for honors, will be entitled to claim
certain exemptions.
(2.) F'or the Diploma of Graduate in Civil Engineer-
ing.— First year. — Drawing; Mensuration; Surveying;
Mathematics of the second year, in arts; Experimental
Physics, with the ordinary mathematics and physics of
the third year, in arts; English literature; French or
German; Chemistry.
Second year. — Drawing; Engineering; Higher Mathe-
matics and Physics; Geology and Mmeralogy; French or
German.
4. Examinations, Prizes, Certificate, and Honors. —
(1.) Prizes and certificates of merit are given to those
matriculated students who may have' distinguished them-
selves in the studies of a particular class, and who have
attended all the other classes proper to their year.
(2.) General honors of first or second rank are given to
those matriculated students who show a high degree of
proficiency in all the studies proper to their year.
(3.) Special honors, of first or second rank, are given to
those matriculated students who have successfully passed
the honor examinations, in any class in which studies for
honors have been provided, and have also passed creditably
the ordinary examinations in all the subjects proper to
their year.
(4.) The Chapman Gold Medal is given to the student
who, being among those who have taken honors of the
fii-st rank in the subjects appointed for the year, shall,
in the ordinary examination for the degree of B. A.,
NADA.
rench or
lool, may
ilated in
ty, or en-
l to claim
Engineer-
urveying;
)orimental
physics of
French or
ler Matho-
French or
Honors. —
1 to those
shed them-
who have
ar.
re given to
degree of
\r.
ire given to
uUy passed
studies for
d creditably
proper to
the student
nors of the
year, shall,
} of B. A.,
HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 519
show the greatest proficiency in the greatest number of
subjects.
(5.) The Prince of Wales Gold Medal is awarded to the
student who shall have passed creditably the examinations
for the degree of B. A., and taken the highest honors of
the first rank, in a subject to be prescribed from year to
year by the Faculty.
II. FACULTY OF MEDICINE.
Courses of Lectures. — The number of professors in the
Faculty is nine ; the number of classes, ten, viz.: — 1, Anat-
omy ; 2. Chemistry ; 3. Materia Medica ; 4. Institutes
of Medicine ; 5. Practice of Medicine ; 6. Surgery ; 7.
Midwifery ; 8. Medical Jurisprudence ; 9. Clinical Medi-
cine ; 10. Clinical Surgery.
Besides the above classes, students are required to at-
tend one course of Botany, and one course of Zoology.
ni. FACULTY OF LAW.
Course of Lectures. — The number of Professors in this
Faculty is five ; and the complete course of study extends
over three years, but it may be shortened to two years when
the student matriculates in the third year of his indentures.
The following are the subjects of lectures embraced in
the complete course of three years :
To Students of the First year : — On Public and Consti-
tutional Law ; on Contracts ; on the Civil Law ; on the
Origin and History of the Laws of France, of England,
and of Lower Canada ; on the Law of Real Estate and
Customary Law.
To Students of the Second year : — On Public and Con-
stitutional Law ; on Commercial Contracts ; on the Civil
Law ; on Legal Bibliography ; on the Law of Ileal Estate
and Customary Law.
To Students of the Third year : — On Criminal Law ; on
I
', 1 r
1: .
III
ilp
:T:i'1]'k
■
1 •
.i.il.
\
ini
U,|
'«!
)A
n
ii.;.:M"
520 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
Commercial Contracts ; on Leases ; on the Law of Real
Estate and Customary Law.
UNIVKRSITY OF BISIIOP's COLLEGE,* LENNOXVILLE.
This University had its origin in the pressing want of a
theological school for educating candidates for the ministry
of the United Church of England and Ireland, in Lower
Canada. It was projected by the Rev. L. Doolittle, M. A.,
then missionary of the Church of England at Lennoxville
and Sherbrooke ; and an act of incorporation was obtained
in 1843.t In 1844 the building was commenced ; and in
September, 1845, the college was opened in temporary
apartments until the completion of the entire building in
the October of the following year. In 1853, the plan of
the college was enlarged, and it then became a university
by a royal charter, and was empowered to confer degrees
" in the several Arts, and the Faculties of Divinity, Law,
and Medicine." It held its first public meeting of con-
vocation for that purpose on the 7th of October, 1854. In
1857, a handsome chapel was erected adjoining the Col-
lege ; and in 1860-'61 buildings on an extensive scale were
also erected for the pupils of the junior department, or
Grammar school. The attendance of students has not
been very great. It is now twenty-three in the faculties
of Theology and Arts. The number in the junior de-
partment is about 115.
The endowment of the University is derived from private
sources, and donations from the Societies for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, and for Propagating the Gospel in
Foreign Parts. It has also an annual parliamentary grant.
The annual expenses of the University and Grammar
* The information in regard to thia University is partly derived from the
Canada Educational Directory.
f On the appointment of the bishop of Montreal, this act vfta amended by
the I6th Yictoria, cap. 60.
NAD A.
of Real
:lle.
vant of a
i ministry
in Lower
;le,M.A.,
nnoxville
i obtained
d ; and in
;ernporary
lilding in
iG plan of
university
er degrees
lity, Law,
iig of con-
1854. In
g the Col-
scale were
rtment, or
3 lias not
e faculties
junior de-
om private
Promoting
Gospel in
tary grant.
G rani mar
•ived from tho
» amended hj
BISTOBIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEU CANADA. 521
School are abont $10,000 ; and the value of the buildings,
furniture, and library of 4,000 volumes, is estimated at
$55,000. There are two "Jubilee scholarships," of the
value of $140 per annum, tenable for three years each ;*
besides a scholarship founded by the Prince of Wales in
1860.
FACULTY Ot ARTS.
The degrees conferred on this facnlty are B. A. and M. A.
The requisites for the degree of B. A. are, 1. Having passed
an examination in the subjects prescribed to candidates
for matriculation ; 2. Being of the standing of three years
(nine terms) from matriculation in the University; 3. Hav-
ing, in each of these years, attended the lectures and passed
the examinations prescribed for each such year of the course.
The ordi.iary college course extends over four years, and
includes classical and English literature and composition,
history, mathematics, natural and experimental philosophy,
chemistry, logic, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and divinity.
At the end of the first year, those college students who
pass the prescribed matriculation examination, are entitled
to become members of the University.
The requisites for the degree of M. A. are : 1. Being of
the standing of three years from admission to the degree
of B. A. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed for
candidates for the degree of M. A.
The following are the subjects for matriculation in this
faculty for 1863 :
Divinity. — The Scriptures generally.
Greek and Latin Languages. — Xenophon's Anabasis,
b. iii. ; Homer's Iliad, b. ii. to line 484 ; Cicero pro M.
Marcello ; Yirgil's Eclogues ; Horace's Odes, b. ii. ; Eng-
lish and Latin composition.
* The diocese of Quebec sent home £500 sterling to the Jubilee cf the So
ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts ; the donation was returned
by the society, doubled, and was invested in securities for the scholarships.
W I
f ^'
M
522 niSTOEICAL SKUTOH of education in lower CANADA.
Mathematics. — Arithmetic and Algebra; Euclid, to b.
vi. ; plane trigonometry.
History. — Outlines of Greek and Koman history.
Candidates for classical honors are required to pass an
examination in additional portions of classical authors;
in some treatise or treatises of ancient philosophy ; and in
some work or works of the Greek or Roman orators. And
for mathematical honors, in diflferential and integral calcu-
lus, and in one or more of the subjects prescribed for the
college course.
FACULTY OF DIVINITY.
The degrees conferred in this faculty are B. D. and D. D.
The requisites for the degree of B. D. are : 1. Being of
the standing of seven years from admission to the degree
of M. A., or, being licentiates in Theology of nine years'
standing; 2. Having passed the examination, and per-
formed the exercises prescribed for candidates for the de-
gree of B. D., which are :
An examination in the Epistles (in the original) of the
New Testament ; one Latin and one Greek treatise of one
of the Fathers of the Church ; ecclesiastical history gener-
ally, and the history of the Church of England ; one of the
major Prophets, or the whole of the minor. Also, a Latin
sermon, on a subject to be given out at the time of the
examination.
The course of lectures for theological students extends
over two years, and is prescribed by the bishops.
Persons admitted, by authority of the bishops, to study
in this faculty, without graduating in arts, may, after two
years' residence, and having passed a satisfactory examina-
tion in the subjects prescribed for the divinity course, re-
ceive certificates as licentiates in theology.
The requisites for the degree of D. D. are: 1. Being '-f
tJie standing of ten years from admission to the degree of
I
HI6T0KICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 523
B. D. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed for
candidates for the degree of D. D.
CHAPTER II.
CLASSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGES.* (ARRANGED IN
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.)
(1.) Classical College and Theological Seminary oj' If on
treat. — The theological seminary, or Grand Semdnaire, of
St. Sulpice, at Montreal, was founded in 1647, by the
clergy of the order of St. Sulpice, in Paris. In 1677, tiie
king of France granted them letters patent ; but the Petit
Seminaire, or College of Montreal, which was founded
by th(: Seminary of St. Sulpice, was not established until
the year 1773.
The first Snlpician seminary, or college, established at
Montreal, was named St. Raphael.f It was opened in
the Chateau Vaudreuil, which was built in 1723, on the
square now known as the Place Jacques Cartier, in the
city of Montreal. The chateau having been destroyed by
fire in 1803, thti college was reopened in 1806, under the
name of the Seminary, or College of Montreal.
The number of professors in the Petit Seminaire, or col-
lege, is eight, and the number of pupils about 260. The
library of the college contains upwards of 10,000 volumes ;
and the value of the museum is about $12,000. A great
many of the minerals were given by the celebated Abbe
* For a portion of the iaformation in regard to thesse institutions, the writer
is indebted to the '^Memorial de V Education duBas Canada, par J. B. Meilleur,
M. D., LL. D.," late Chief Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada.
Montreal, 1860.
f Another college of the same name was established at St. Raphael, in the
county of Glengarry, U. C, by the late Right Rev. Bishop McDonell. It was
aiTorwa d removed to Kingston, and is now known as Regiopolia College.
Il
■ m
h\
m
i ■
^^
i%.
V n
fi
524 niSTORICAI. sketch of education in lower CANADA.
Ilaiiy. The annual income of the college is about $22,000 ;
and the value of the college buildings and premises is esti-
mated at $500,000.
The Seminary buildings in Montreal having, in 1862,
been rented to the troops and converted into barracks, the
College was removed to the new Grand Seminary build-
ings, which were lately erected on a tine site south-east of
tlie mountain. These new premises are valued at $120,000.
The Grand Seminary is designed for the students in theo-
logy, of whom there are about eighty. Tlie number of
professors is six ; and the number of volumes in the library
is 2,500.
Tlie Seminary of St. Sulpice also established, in 1789,
and still maintains, at an annual expense of $32,000, some
excellent primary schools in the city and parish of Montreal.
The Grand Seminary, like that of Quebec, was founded
especially for giving instruction in theology to young men
destined for the priesthood in Canada and in the United
States.
(2.) Classical College and TheologlGol Seminary of
Nitioht. — Tliis college was founded in ISOi, by the Rev.
Mr. Brassard. He bequeathed it to Mgr. Denaut, tenth
Iloman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. It languished for
many years; but, in 1821, it was incorporated; and in
1826-30 it was re-established on an extensive scale by Mgr.
Panet, twelfth Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. It has
now eighteen professors and masters, and is attended by
about 260 pupils. Its library contains 4,000 volumes, and
it has, besides, a very good museum. The Theological
Seminary was established in 1854. The revenue of the
college is about $13,000 per annum ; and the value of the
buildings and premises is estimated at about $111,000.
(3.) Classical College and Theological Seminary of
St. ITyacinthe. — In 1812, when St. llyacinthe contained
but thirty houses, the Rev. A. Girouard projected this
HI8T0BI0AL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 525
institution. It made rapid progress, and was incorporated
in 1835. As the number of pupils increased, tlie old college
was replaced by a spacious and elegant building of 200
feet front, on the outskirts of the city, at the cost of
Francis Cadoret, Esq., a public-spirited citizen of St. Ilya-
cinthe. It has twenty-one professors and masters, and is
attended by nearly 300 pupils. Besides a library of 10,000
volumes, it possesses an excellent museum of natural
history, &c. The annual income of the college is from
$24,000 to $30,000 ; and the value of the buildings and
premises is estimated at $120,000.
(4.) Classical College and Theological Seminary of Ste.
Therese de Blainville. — This college was founded, amid
many difficulties, in 1824-5, by the Rev. Charles Du-
charme. It was enlarged in 1832, again in 1839, and finally
completed in 1845. It was incorporated the same year,
1845. It has about fifteen professors and teachers, and is
attended by nearly 185 pupils. It possesses a good library
of 2,200 volumes, and a museum valued at $3,200. The
value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $62,000 ;
and its annual income is about $13,400. The Theological
seminary was established in 1840.
(5). Chamhly Industrial College. — This institution was
founded in 1825, by the Very Rev. P. M. Mignault, V.
G. It was incorporated ' in 1836, but has since been
closed.
(6.) Classical and Industrial College of Ste. Anne de la
Pocatiere. — This college was founded in 1827, by the Rev.
C. F. Puinchaud, aided by the Legislature and the contri-
butions of friends of education in the vicinity. It was
opened in 1829. In addition to its classical and com-
mercial courses, a third one in agriculture was added in
1858. It has a library of about 5,000 volumes, and a good
museum. The number of professors and teachers is fifteen,
and of pupils 260. The annual income of the college ia
I
Pf!
j
mW
fliS
^^^B
jBl
{-' : ^^^^H
B
'^^H
vBk
IH
fT
'I^H
IH
1
< ^I^^H
B
i ^H^^H
1
I
B
9
'
Hi
1
w^
526 HI8T0EI0AL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA.
about $20,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises
is estimated at $80,000.
(7.) V Assom.ption Classical and Industrial College. —
The establishment of this college, in 1832, is due to the
exertions of the Rev. F. Labelle, and his brother Edward,
Dr, Cazeneuve, and Dr. Meilleur (late Superintendent of
Education for Lower Canada), aided by the Legislature,
and the contributions of the parishioners of L'Assomption
village. The act of incorporation was passed in 1841, and
amended in 1858. It has a library of 1,500 volumes and
a museum of Natural History. It numbers fifteen pro-
fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 180 pupils.
The annual revenue of the college is about $8,000 ; and
the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at
$24,000.
(8.) Jolieite Industrial College. — In 1846, the Hon. B.
Joliette, aided by others, founded this college in the vil-
lage of Industry. In 1851, it was placed under the direc-
tion of the clerks of St. Viator, a religious educational
order founded in Fiance, in 1832. There are twelve pro-
fessors and teachers and about 350 pupils in the college.
It has a library of about 800 volumes. The income of the
college is about $5,000 ; and the value of the buildings and
premises is estimated at $17,500.
(9.) Masson Industrial College. — ^Tlie foundation of this
college, in the village of Terrebonne, in 1847, by the Rev.
Mr. Theberge, is principally due to the benevolent gener-
osity of Madam Masson, widow of the Hon. Joseph Mas-
son. The Hon. Edward Masson, their son, also contri-
buted liberally to the erection of the new building. The
value of the college and premises is estimated at $36,000,
and its library of 1,500 volumes and museum at $2,000.
Its income is about $9,000 per annum. The number of
professors and teachers is twenty, and of pupils 300.
(10.) Jesuit CoUege de Ste. Marie, Mont/real. — Seven
*\
mSTOBICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 527
years after the second arrival of the Jesuits in Canada, they
founded (in 1849) St. Mary's College, Montreal, under the
auspices of Mgr. Bourget, second Roman Catholic Bishop
of Montreal. In 1852, the college was incorporated, and
in the same year a Law School was established in the in-
stitution. There are fourteen professors and teachers in the
college, and the number of students is about 320 — including
70 in the Law School. The number of volumes in the
library is nearly 1,200. The annual income of the institu-
tion is upwards of $25,000; and the value of the buildings
and premises is estimated at $72,000.
(ll.") Bigaud Industrial and Commercial College. —
Under the authority of the Lower Canada School Act of
1846, this college was founded in 1850, by the Rev. Mr.
Desautels (a generous friend to education), and the school
commissioners of the parish. It is placed under the di-
rection of the clerks of St. Viator, but is subject to govern-
mental inspection. The number of professors and teachers
is seven, and of pupils in attendance about 120. The
annual income is about $2,000 ; and the value of the build-
ings and premises is estimated at $5,000.
(12.) Classical and Industrial College of Ste. Marie de
Monnoir. — ^This college, founded in 1853, by the Very
Rev. E. Crevier, V. G., was incorporated in 1855. It has
eight professors and teachers, and is attended by about 180
pupils. Its library was established by the contributions of
the clergy in the diocese of St. Hyacinthe. The annual
income of the college is about $3,000 ; and the value of the
buildings and premises is estimated at $10,500.
(13.) Industrial and Commercial College of St. Michel,
— ^This college was also founded under the authority of the
School Act of 1846, by the Rev. K C. Fortier, and the
school commissioners of the parish. It has three professors
and teachers, and is attended by about 150 pupils. The
number of volumes in the library is upwards of 1,000.
I li
■ ! r
\ i-i
il
"^iipBi
m^ 1^ • .
» 'IS
f-ii
528 HISTORICAL 8RETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
The annnal income of the college is about $4,000 ; and the
estimated valne of the buildings and premises is $6,500.
(14.) Industrial and Commercial College of Notre Da^'ne
de Levis. — This college was projected in 1850, and founded
in 1854, by the Rev. J. D. Deziel, and his parishioners. It
was first under the direction of the Christian Brothers, but,
in 18G0, it was placed under the direction of the corpora-
tion of Quebec Seminary. A Latin course was added, so
as to prepare the third-year boys for admission to the
fourth class of the Quebec Seminary. It has seven pro-
fessors and teachers, and is attended by nearly 180 pupils.
Tlie value of the college and premises is estimated at
$32,000, and its annual income at $4,500. There are
2,000 volumes in the college library, besides $400 worth
of apparatus.
(15.) St. Francis Classical College. — ^Tliis college was
founded at Richmond, by subscriptions, chiefly collected in
the neighborhood, in 1854, and opened in 1856. It is in
affiliation with McGill College University, and is man-
aged by a board of Protestant trustees, of which j^ord
Aylmer, who resides there, is president. The annual in-
come is about $2,000; and the value of the college and
premises is estimated at $12,000. It has eight professors
and teachers, and is attended by about 120 pupils. Its
library contains 1,000 volumes.
(16.) Industrial and Commercial College of Laval. —
This college was established in 1854, at St. Vincent de
Paul, near Montreal, by the Rev. N. Lavallee, and E.
Germain, Esq. It has seven professors and teachers, and
is attended by about 100 pupils. Its library contains 1,000
volunies. The annual income of the college is about
$1,500 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is
estimated at $5,000.
(17.) Industrial and Commercial College of Ste. Marie
de la Beauce. — This college was founded in 1854, by the
JJ
W
I
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 529
Rev. Mr. Proulx, and is under the direction of the Christian
Brothers. It has three professors and teachers, and is
attended by upwards of 100 pupils. The annual income
is about $600 ; and the value of the buildings and premises
is estimated at $6,500.
(18.) Industrial and Commercial College of Vercheres.
— In 1854, this college was founded by the Rev. Mr.
Brunneau, and is placed under the direction of the clerks
of St. Yiator. It has nine professors and teachers, and
is attended by about 100 pupils. The annual income of
the college is about $1,500 ; and the value of the buildings
and premises is estimated at $8,500.
(19.) Industrial and Commercial College of St. Germain
de liimoushi. — ^The year 1854 was noted for the founda-
tion of the five preceding colleges. This one was also
founded in 1854, by the Rev. C. Tanquay. It had to con-
tend with many difficulties; but in 1861, it was reorganized
and placed upon an efficient footing. The study of Agri-
culture was also introduced into it. It has now six pro-
fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 110 pupils.
The college premises are valued at about $10,000. The
income is about $1,200 per annum.
(20.) Industrial and Commercial College of Sherbrooke.
• — This college, or institute, was founded in 1855, by Mgr.
Prince, Roman Catholic Bishop of St. Ilyacinthe. It has
three professors and teachers, and is attended by about 70
pupils. Its annual income is about $700; and the value
of the buildings and premises is estimatea at $2,400.
(21.) Industrial and Commercial College of La Chute. —
This college was incorporated in 1856, and was established
chiefly by the contributions of the principal inhabitants
of La Chute. There are four professors or teachers, and
the luimber of pupils is 175. The annual income of the
college is about $1,100, and the value of the buildings and
premises is estimated at $2,000.
i
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1 ji'vi;*
,3^.-
'11
fy
m
530 HISTOBICAL SKBTCn OF EDUCATION IN LO^TEK CANADA.
(22.) Industrial and Commercial College of Varennes
— This college was established in 1855. It has four pro-
fessors and teachers, and is attended by 120 pupils.
The annual income of the college is about $750 ; and the
value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $12,000.
(23.) Classical College of Three Rivers. — This college,
which is under the direction of Mgr. the Roman Catholic
Bishop of Three Rivers, was established in 1859, and in-
corporated in 1860. It was designed to be similar to the
classical colleges at Quebec and Montreal. The number
of professors and teachers is nine, and the number of
pupils 110. The animal income is about $4,100 ; and the
number of volumes in the library is 800. The value of
its apparatus, &c., is $1,000.
(24.) Industrial and Cmnmercial College of longueuil,
— This institution, formerly an academy, was erected into
a college in 1860. It has seven professors and teachers,
and is attended by about 350 pupils. The number of
volumes in the library is 250. Tlie annual income is about
$1,600; and the value of the building and premises is
estimated at $1,250.
(25.) The Morrin Classical College^ Quelec. — This in-
stitution was founded by deed of gift from the late Dr.
Morrin, of Quebec, in 1860. It was incorporated in 1861,
and opened in 1862, under two professors. It is attended
by twenty-five students. The estimated value of the College
property is $50,000 ; but the buildings are not yet erected.
The classical High Schools of Quebec and McGill College
are respectively attached to Morrin and McGill colleges.
CHAPTER III.
ACADEMIES FOB BOYS AND GIELS.
Thbbe were in Lower Canada, in 1861, sixty-three acad-
emies for boys, and for boys and girls — mixed ; eighty-
CANADA.
Yarennes
J four pro-
20 pupils.
) ; and the
at $12,000.
lis college,
m Catholic
59, and in-
ailar to the
'he number
number of
lO ; and the
he value of
Longueuil.
3rected into
id teachers,
number of
»me is about
premises is
7. — This in-
he late Dr.
ted in 1861,
is attended
the College
yet erected.
Gill College
11 colleges.
three acad-
ced; eighty-
HlflTOEIOAX, SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 631
four for girls; or one hundred and forty-seven in all, taught
by 733 persons. These academies were attended by 21,406
pupils. Their united annual income was $240,000, and the
aggregate value of the landed property attached to the
various institutions, including buildings occupied, was esti-
mated at $1,700,000. The number of volumes in the
libraries of these academies was nearly 45,000.
The sixty-three academies for boys, and for boys and
girls mixed, were, in 1861, attended by 4,571 boys and
1,372 girls — total, 6,943; of which number 3,794 were
Roman Catholics and 2,149 Protestants. In the academies
for boys exclusively, only 310 pupils out of 4,571 were
learning Latin. Those for boys and girls mixed are ne-
cessarily less severe in their course of study, being design-
ed to supply a superior elementary education for the youth
of both sexes.
The eighty-four academies for girls were, in 1861,
attended by 15,363, and 100 young boys ; total, 16,463 ; of
which number only 193 were Protestants, the remaining
15,270 being Roman Catholics. In thes»5 academies for
girls are included the various convents in Lower Canada,
the most noted of which are the Convent of the Ui'sulines
at Quebec, founded in 1640, and tiiat at Three Rivers,
founded in 1697 ; the convents of the Sisters of the Con-
gregation of Notre Dame at Montreal and Quebec, and
the larger convents of other religious orders in the cities
and towns of Lower Canada. The course of instruction
in these convents embraces all the higher departments of
female education, such as the modern languages, music,
drawing, painting, botany, mineralogy, chemistry, em-
broidery, etc. In the eighty-four academies for girls there
are 474 nun teachers, 78 lay female teachers, and one lay
professor ; total, 653 ; being on an average nearly seven
teachers to each academy, or one for every twenty-eight
pupils.
34
li
fci.
\
^|i
\' t
532 HISTORIOAL SKTSTCU OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA.
CHAPTER ly.
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
There are in Lower Canada three Normal Schools ;
namely, two in Montreal and one in Quebec. Of the two
in Montreal, the Jacques Cartier is designed for Roman
Catholics, and the Mc^ ill for Protestants ; and the one in
Quebec, viz., the Laval, is designed for Roman Catholics.
These three institutions were established by the Hon. Dr.
Chauveau, under the authority of an act of Parliament,
in 1857. Their annual income amounts to $37,000 ; and
the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at
about $100,000. The number of professors and teachers
is 30, viz., 24 males and six females. The numl)er of
student teachers in attendance at the three schools in 1861
was 207, viz. : 98 males and 109 females, or 150 Roman
Catholics and 57 Protestants. The number of volumes
in the three libraries is 11,000. The course of study ex-
tends over two and three years. A model school for
practice is attached to each of the Montreal Normal
Schools, and two to the Quebec school. These four
Bchools are taught by eleven teachers and are attended by
704 pupils — boys and girls.
CHAPTER Y.
PROFESSIONAL, OR SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
Under the head of special schools may be enumeratea
theological schools, law schools, medical schools, agricul-
tural schools, schools of art and manufacture, and deaf
and dumb schools.
The Theological Schools embrace (1.) the Roman Ca-
tholic Seminaries of Quebec and Montreal, and the the-
ological schools in the colleges of St. Hyacinthe, Nicolet,
'■'■^
HISTOBICAIi SKETCH OF EDUOATIOX IN LOWER CANADA. 533
Ste. Th6r^se de Blainville ; and (2.) the Chufch of England
Faculty of Theology in the University of Bishop's Col-
lege, Lennoxville.* In nearly all the (R. C.) classical col-
leges of Lower Canada provision is made for giving a lim-
ited course of instruction in theology to students designed
for the priesthood. All such students, however, are re-
quired to finish their theological studies at the Grand
Seminary of Quebec or Montreal.
The Law Schools (already referred to also), are those in
connection with the universities of Laval and McGill, and
with the Jesuit College of Ste. Marie, Montreal.*
The medical schools include those in cormection with
the Laval and McGill College Universities, and the Mont-
real School of Medicine and Surgery. This latter school
was established in 1843, and incorporated in 1845.
The only agricultural school in Lower Canada, we be-
lieve, is that in connection with the College do Ste. Anne
de la Pocati^re. It is attended by about ten pupils.
II
CHAPTER VL
MODEL, ELEMENTAKY, AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS, ETC.
The model schools of Lower Canada are denominated
Superior Primary Schools, so as to distinguish them from
the secondary or elementary common schools. They in-
clude the better class of Protestant and Roman Catholic
boys and girls' schools in cities, towns, and villages. Many
of them are under the control of particular societies and
religious communities,f but they nevertheless receive a
share of the legislative school grant. In 1861, there were
239 of these superior primary schools in Lower Canada,
* See separate account of each institution in Chapter IL
\ See following chapter.
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534 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA.
•
viz., 189 for boys and fifty for girls. Of this 239, only
125 received public aid to the amount of $16,400 ; the re-
maining 114 were private or " independent."
The elementary schools include the ordinary secondary
or common schools, and the Protestant dissentient com-
mon schools. There were, in 1861, 2,746 of the former,
attended by 134,777 pupils, and 143 of the latter, atten()"d
by 5,119 pupils. Both classes receive public aid alike.
The number of private or independent schools report
to have l»een in existence in Lower Canada, in 1861, was
325, attended by 22,355 pupils.
CHAPTER YII.
EDUCATIONAL COMMUNITIES, SOCIETIES, AND SCHOOL ORGAN
IZATION8.
The educational communities, societies, and school
organizations of Lower Canada are numerous, and may
be referred to briefly, in chronological order, as follows : —
1. The Recollets, or Franciscans, were the first mis-
sionaries in Canada, as well as the first teachers. They
came to Canada after Champlain, 1615. In 16:.*^, Frere
Pacifique established a school at Three Rivers ; and about
the same time, Frere le Caron established one at Tadousac.
In 1820, the Recollets, under the French king's authority,
established a convent at Quebec, to which the famous
Prince de Conde made a liberal donation. They also es-
tablished schools in the county parishes, as well as in
Vercheres, Quebec, and Montreal. At the conquest, in
1759, their lands, with those of the Jesuits, were taken
possession of by the crown. The last of the order, Pere
Louis (Demers), ordained in 1757, died at Montreal in 1813.
2. The Jesuits came to Quebec in 1625. Pere Le-
jeune, one of the order, opened his Indian school at Que-
39, only
; the re-
jcondary
snt com-
} former,
attend '.'d
alike,
i report '
.861, was
jrs.
-^
)L OBOAN
nd school
, and may-
follows :—
first mis-
They
Frere
and about
Tadonsac.
authority,
le famous
ey also es-
well as in
ouquest, in
vere taken
)rder, Pere
Bal in 1813.
Pere Le-
ol at Que-
HIBTOBICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 535
bee, in 1632, and P6re Lalemant his French school, at the
same plase, in 1635. In the same year the Jesuit College
was opened in Quebec, and was continued as a college —
although the order had been suppressed — until 1776, when
it was converted into a barrack by the British govern-
ment. The Jesuits established several elementary schools
in the neighborhood, but they were closed after the order
was suppressed. In 1842 the Jesuits again arrived in
Canada, and, in IS-IS, established the College de Ste.
Marie, at Montreal. They have also established Superior,
a convent seven miles from Montreal.
3. The Ursulines. — In 1639, Madame La Peltrie founded
the celebrated convent of the Ursulines in Quebec: and in
1697, Mgr. St. Yalier, Bishop of Quebec, founded another
extensive convent of the Ursulines at Three Rivers, The
Hotel Dieu, at Quebec, was also founded in 1639, by the
Duchesse d'Aiguillon (niece of the Cardinal Richelieu).
4. Ladies of the Congregation of Notre i>aw^.- -This
community, as an ofi'shoot of one which still exists in Paris,
was established at Montreal, in 1653, by Dlle. Marguerite
Bourgeois. The first school was opened at Montreal, in
1657, and was chiefly attended by Indian girls. Tlie
number of schools gradually increased in 1727, to 34, in-
cluding one in Kingston, Upper Canada, and two in Nova
Scotia. At present, not less than 10,000 attend the various
schools and convents established by this community.
5. Rayal Institution for the Advancement of Learning
— A Board or Council of Education under this name was
authorized by Act of Parliament in 1801. The members
of the Royal Institution were not, however, appointed
until 1818. The object of the institution was to promote
the establishment of elementary schools. In this it failed ;
and its powers have, by successive school Acts, been grad-
ually limited, so that it is now, we believe, connected with
McGill College only as a Board of Governors.
I
it I
536 HISTOBICAX SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWKB CANADA.
I)
HI
'd'
6. Tlie Fahrique Schools. — In 1824, a Legislative Act
was passed giving power to the fabriques, or Roman Catho-
lic parish corporation, to establish schools. These schools
are now under the control of the local school autliorities.
7. The Dissentient Schools. — ^These schools originated in
a desire to provide an education in Roman Catholic com-
munities for the children of the purely Protestant part of
the population of Lower Canada. They were contem-
plated in a bill which was introduced into the Lower Can-
ada House of Assembly in 1829, but which then failed to
become law. The General School Law for Tipper and
Lower Canada, however, which was passed in 1841, dis-
tinctly authorized the establishment of Protestant Dissen-
tient schools in Lower Canada, and separate schools in
Upper Canada, and they have ever since been in existence.
In 1861 there were in Lower Canada 143 of the Dissen-
tient schools, attended by 5,119 pupils.
8. Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes^ or Christian Brothers^
Schools. — ^This religious order was established in France,
in 1679, and it was introduced into Canada in 1837. Its
schools are now very numerous and well attended.
9. Continental Church and School Society. — This society
(form.erly the " Colonial Cliurch Society," and the " New-
foundland School Society"), in connection with the Church
of England, originated in London in 1823 ; and its ope-
rations were extended to Canada in 1838. In January,
1851, the two Societies named were united, and became
the " Colonial Church and School Society." In May, 1861,
the present name was adopted. A branch of the Society
exists in each of the Church of England dioceses of
Quebec and Montreal. In the Montreal diocese it has a
Model School, and an Infant School in each of the two
dioceses. The number of other elementary schoo' a con-
nection with the Society, is 30 ; viz. : 20 in the diocese
of Montreal, and 10 in the diocese of Quebec. Total, 33 ;
HKTOEIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCSATION IN LOWER CANADA. 637
attended by about 1,600 pupils. The annual expenditure
on behalf of these schools is nearly $12,000, of whirjli the
government grant is about $1,000. One hundred and fivo
schools have been established, or at some time aided in
Canada by the Society.
10. Ladies of the Sacred Heart. — This religious com-
munity came from France in 1842. It bus an extensive
convent at Sault au Recollet, near Montreal.
11. Sisters of Providence. — This community was estab-
lished by Mgr. Bourget, in 1844. Upwards of 1,000
pupils attend the schools of the order.
12. Brothers of St. Joseph. — These brothers came from
France in 1847. They have several schools, in which they
afford' instruction in agriculture and the useful sciences.
13. Ladies of Ste. Croix. — This community, founded in
France in 1839, established a convent at Montreal in 1847.
They have also several other convents in the country.
14. Sisters of Ste. Anne. — ^This community originated
in Canada in 1848. It has four convents in Lower Canada.
15. Sisters of the Presentation. — This community came
from France in 1853. It has six convents in the diocese of
St. Hyacinthe.
16. Sisters de VAssomption originated in the diocese
of Three Elvers in 1853. Their convent is at St. Gregoire.
17. TJie other Roman Catholic religious teaching com-
inunities* are the Ladies of the Holy Name of Jesus,
Sisters of the Holy Cross, and the Sisters of Charity, &c
Those which are not teaching communities are the Grey
Sisters or Nuns, who have charge of the Asylum for old
men and other charitable institutions at Montreal, and the
Ladies of the Good Shepherd, who iia,ve charge of a liefuge
or Magdalene in the same'place.
18. 27ie other Protestant Societies* are the British and
* No separate informatioa oas been obtained in regard to these communi<
ties and sociotiea, etc.
i- -t
Wi
J .: 1
538 niSTOEIC-cVL sketch of education in lower CANADA.
Canadian Scliool Society, Educational Society, American
Presbyterian School Society, besides schools named St.
Andrews, German, Protestant, etc.
CHAPTER VIII.
SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES.
Under this head we may enumerate (1) schools for or-
phans ; (2) for deaf and dumb ; (3) for juvenile criminals.
(1.) There are excellent orphan schools in the principal
cities of Lower Canada ; but our information and want of
space will not warrant us in entering into details.
(2.) There are two Asylums for the deaf and dumb in
Lo'-'er Canada. The first, for boys, was established near
Montreal by the Rev. Abbe Lagorce, in 1849 ; and the
second, for girls, was established in Montreal by Mgr.
Bonrget, Roman Cathol'c Bishop of Montreal, in 1853.
In these two asylums there are eight teachers and about
sixty pupils. An asylum of the same description was es-
tablished by Donald McDonald, Esq., at Quebec, in 1832,
under the authority of a special act of Parliament. Mr.
McDonald was aided in his benevolent work by M. Clerc,
formerly a pupil of the Abbe Sicard, who was a successor
of the celebrated Abbe de L'Epoe, inventor of a method
for instructing deaf-mutes. The law, however, having ex-
pired in 1836, it was never revived, and the Asylum was
closed.
(3.) The Reformatory school for juvenile criminals was
established at the Isle aux Noix, near the frontier, and at
the head of the Richelieu river, in 1858. Being an old
military post, it was again deemed necessary to occupy it,
and the Reformatory was removed to St. Vincent de Paul,
near Montreal, in 1861. There are now about fifty inmates
in the institution.
NAD A.
American
amed St.
ENCIE8.
ols for or-
riminals.
principal
d want of
B.
dumb in
shed near
I ; and the
by Mgr.
, in 1853.
and about
on was es-
c, in 1832,
lent. Mr.
M. Clerc,
successor
a method
laving ex-
lyhim was
ninals was
ier, and at
jing an old
occupy it,
It de Paul,
'ty inmates
mSTOBIOAL BEETOH OF EDUCATION IN LOWSO. CANADA. 539
CHAPTER IX.
OTHEB 8UPPLEMENTAEY AGENCIES..
These agencies include mechanics' institutes, literary
societies, associations, and libraries.
(1.) As in Upper Canada, the Board of Arts and Manu-
factures of Lower Canada has chiefly to do with the me-
chanics' institutes. This board established, in 1859, a cen-
tral scliool of art and manufactures at Montreal. It has
now six professors and teachers, and is attended by about
sixty pupils.
(2.) The literary societies of Lower Canada are numerous,
hut we have only room to enumerate those in existence in
Montreal and Quebec. In Montreal : The Natural History
Society; Institut Canadien ; Medico-chirurgical ; Mechanics'
Institute ; Hochelaga Debating Club ; McGill University
Society ; Phrenological Society, etc. In Quebec : Literary
and Historical Society ; Institut Canadien ; Mechanics' In-
stitute ; Institute of St. Rochs ; St. Patrick's Institute, etc.
(3.) As far as possible, we have given the number of
volumes of books contained in the library of each of the
colleges. In addition, we can only give the following sum-
mary of libraries, from the report of the Superintendent of
Education for Lower Canada for the year 1861, viz. : num-
ber of public libraries, 163 ; number of volumes therein,
106,500 ; number of volumes in the libraries connected
with the seminaries, colleges, academies, and normal
schools, 161,366. Total number of volumes, 267,866.
Note. — At the request of the publisher, this article on
the state and progress of education in Lower Canada has
been considerably abridged.
i
fi ,1
h
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540 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA.
PART III.
CHAPTER I.
VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS.
(1.) Lands set apart f<fr Educational Purposes.*
Acres.
(l.) Order of Jesuits, &c., for education 891,846
(2.) Bishop and Seminary of Quebec 693,324
(3.) St. Sulpicians and Seminary of Montreal 250,191
(4.) Urauline Convent, Quebec 164,616
(5.) Ursuline Convent, Three Rivers 38,909
2,038,885
(6.) Parliamentary Appropriation for Common Schools in
Upper and Lower Canada (proportion), say 500,000
Grand Total of Acres 2,538,885
(2.) Public Aid to Education (1862).
(1.) Parliamentary Grant to Superior Edu-
cation (t. «., Colleges and Universi-
ties) $20,000
Income from Lands and Investments .... 26,685
Unappropriated balance transferred from
Legislative School Grant, as below . . 34,047
$80,732
(2.) Income of Laval University and Semi-
nary from Lands, Ac. (estimated) 12,500
Parliament. Grant to two Medical Schools 2,000
Parlia. Grant to two Historical Societies 2,000
Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories 2,900
6,900
(3.) Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools,
from Lands, &c 173,967 •
Less unappropriated balance transferred as
above to Superior Education 34,047
139,920
$253,052
(4.) Local Assessment (1861) 261, 530
(5.) Fees, Ac, do. 264,689
526,219
$779,271
* This statement in regard to the Royal grants of land in Lower Canada
is taken from a memorial addressed by the Right Rev. Dr. Strachan, Bishop
of Toronto, to the Canadian Legislature, in Nov. 1843. No further authentic
statement could be obtained on this subject
»i
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 541
(3.) Progress of Education in Lower Canada, since 1852.
EuucaMonal Institutions
of all kinds.
Tear.
1853 2,352
1854 2,795
1855 2,868
1856 2,919
1867 2,946
1858 2,985
1859 3,199
1860 3,264
1861.
.3,345 ^80,845.
Assessments and
Pupils. Fees.
.108,284 $16,5,848
.119,733 238,032
.127,058 249,136
.143,141 406,704
148,798 424,208
.156,872 459,396
.168,148 498,436
.112,155 603,859
626,219
... 2,538,885
CHAPTER II.
PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS FROM 1832 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE.
BTATEMENT OP THE ANNUAL PAYMENTS ON BEHALF OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR
AND LOWER CANADA, PROM THE YEAR 1832 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE, EXTRACTED
FROM THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTS AND OTHER OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS.
in Lower Canada
Strachan, Bishop
further authentio
Year.
LOWKB CANADA.
VPPXS CANADA.
c'oinmon
Schools.
Superior
ScDools.
TotaL
Uommon
Schools.
Grammar
Schools.
Total.
1882
$129,880
88,020
98,174
103,243
146.627
100,000*
90,000*
80,000*
$9,600
&5,200
81,400
88,800
85,800
88,600
88,600*
87,200
$4,000
8,861
8,981
4,545
4,.")59
4.550*
4.600*
6,600
$13,000
39,061
85 381
1833
1834
1835
88,845
40 359
1886
1837
43,150
42 500*
1838
1839
42,800
73,000*
72,779
1840
1841
1842
93,427
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
The payments to Common and Superior Schools in Upper
find LowiT Canada, from 1841 to 1849, are not distinguished in
the Parliamentary papers of those years from which these sums
are taken.
78,630
268.821
322,196
256,135
207.970
1848
266,070
1849
290.165
1850
1851
1852
1863
1854
1855
law
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
$158,2i2
102,144
94,116
142,473
151,873
94,081
133,800
137,800
137,800
168,296
189,680
189,820
$1T,226
25,557
20.201
62,,557
6:i.260
103,041
91,372
80,437
76,674
62,742
a't,975
80,732
175,433
127,701
114,316
20.5,030
215,133
197,122
225,172
218,237
214,474
231,037
223.655
220,552
88.867
94.434
100,896
152,802
95,806
147,3.'0
150,185
186,032
186,032
186,032
186,033
186,032
7.551
7,710
7,910
8,s:i3
24,.'')30
29.934
42.798
84,120
82,922
80,401
44,075
86,811)
96,421
102,144
108,315
161,(«5
120,342
177.304
19s,983
220,152
218,954
222,493
280,108
221,851
* Estimated, no autheutio returns having been available.
V ftl
1<HB
PROGRESS OF NEW BRUNSWICK
WITH A BEIEF VIEW OF ITS
RESOURCES, NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL.
■;i'i
CHAPTER I.
SKETCH OF THE EARLY HISTORY OP NEW BRUNSWICK.
New Brunswick, originally a part of Nova Scotia, be-
came a distinct province under a separate charter in tlie
year 1785.
The whole country, which was first settled by the
French, under the name of Acadia, and was afterward
granted by the English king, James I., to Sir William
Alexander, on the claim that it was a part of the territory
discovered by Sebastian Cabot, frequently cliangcd mas-
ters. Sometimes the French, and sometimes the English,
held it in possession ; but it was at length fully ceded to
the British at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713 ; but until the
final extirpation of the French power in North America,
in 1758 and 1759, Great Britain could not be said to have
peaceable posseBBion of New Brunswick.
WICK
UAL.
lUNSWICK.
Scotia, be-
rter in the
led by the
,s afterward
^ir William
\e territory
angcd nias-
;he English,
ly ceded to
lit until the
;h America,
said to have
BABLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
543
The first substantial occupation by the English began
with a party from the county of Essex, in the then prov-
ince of Massachusetts. In 1760 or 1761, they obtained a
grant of a township of twelve miles square on the river
St. John, wherever it might be found fit for improvement ;
and on the 16th of May, 1762, embarked at Newbury-
poi't, in a vessel provided for the purpose.
After some delays in making explorations, and coming
to terms of agreement with the Indians, they commenced
a settlement at Maugerville, where, during the war of the
American Revolution, they were joined by other emi-
grants from New England : the settled district was ex-
tended and received the general name of Sdnbury. There
courts of justice were established, and other forms of
civil organization adopted, which served the needs of the
inhabitants until the close of the war, in 1783.*
Before that, however, a number of families from York-
shire, in England, and others from Massachusetts, had
settled about Cumberland, at the head of the Bay of
Fundy.
On the suspension of hostilities, and the acknowledg-
ment of the independence of the United States, the Eng-
lish government, having a numerous body of loyalists to
provide for, formed the plan of locating them as colo-
nists in New Brunswick. Accordingly, about three thou-
sand persons, men, women, and children, sailed from New
York in April, 1783, for the river St. John ; some of them
independent passenger^?, but most of them persons who
had joined the British army, and were now to be dis-
banded and settled. In October following, about twelve
hundred more were dispatched from the same place.
All these had to seek a shelter from the approaching
winter by building log and bark huts, while provisions
and clothing, and a few implements, were furnislied them
by government for the first year.
* The first newapaper was printed in 1783.
II
1 ■
JSSm
9
4
11
^^^^B ':'*■-,
fci^^w
Hi.
5*4
EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
In 1785, New Brunswick was separated from Nova
Scotia, and became a distinct province, with a charter and
constitution of its own. The administration consisted of
a governor and council, Sir Guy Carleton being gover-
nor, and the following gentlemen constituting the coun-
cil : — Beverly Kobinson, Gabriel G. Ludlow, George D.
Ludlow, Abijah Willard, Jonathan Odell, James Putnam,
Joshua Upham, Edward Winslow, William Ilazen, Gil-
frcd Studholm, and Daniel Bliss. Robinson, Willard, and
Putnam died soon after, when Beverly Robinson, a son
of the former, George Leonard, and John Saunders, were
appointed in their place. By this body of men the busi-
ness of the province was transacted for a long while.
Governor Carleton was authorized to locate lands to the
loyalists and disbanded troops.
Prom this period, the province gradually improved in
agriculture, shipbuilding, and the exportation of masts,
staves, hoop-poles, shingles, and lumber, to the West In-
dies, receiving, in return, coarse woollens, and other arti-
cles, from England, and rum, molasses, sugar, etc., from
the West Indies. A town was built at the mouth of the
river St. John, another at St. Ann's Point, called I^red-
eridon^ where parts of two regiments were stationed till
tlie Prench revolution. Barracks and other public works
were erected in different places, and the upper parts of the
country settled by establishing two military posts in the
interior : one at Presque Isle, eighty miles above Frederic-
ton, and another at Grand Falls, fifty-two miles farther
up. At St. Ann's a few scattered French huts were
found ; but the country around was a continued wilder-
ness— uninhabited except by savages and wild beasts.
The first settlers were subjected to many and great
hardships. The rigors of an untried climate came upon
them before their cabins were properly prepared to meet
its severity. They were frequently put to the greatest
straits for food and clothing ; and sometimes had to go
from fifty to one hundred miles with handsleds or tobog-
rom Nova
charter and
jonsisted of
eing gover-
nr the coun-
George D.
les Putnam,
Ilazen, Gil-
Millard, and
inson, a son
anders, were
len the busi-
long while.
lands to the
improved in
on of masts,
the West In-
id other arti-
ar, etc., from
mouth of the
called Fred-
stationed till
public works
er parts of the
^ posts in the
)0ve Frederic-
miles farther
?h huts were
tinned wildcr-
ild beasts,
ny and great
ate catne upon
jared to meet
the greatest
lies had
sleds or
EAKLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
545
gang, through the woods or on the ice, to procure supplies
for their famished wives and children. It is said that
during the sharpest portion of the winter, a part of the
family had to remain up during the night to keep fires
going, to prevent them all from freezing. Some of the
more destitute resorted to a novel expedient as a substitute
for blankets and bedding. The elder members of the
family would remain up by turns and heat pieces of board,
between which the smaller children were placed to keep
them warm — the boards being changed when they became
cold. It is a common belief that the climate has been
much ameliorated by the clearing up of the forests.
A considerable part of the eastern coast, from the
Straits of Northumberland to the Bay of Chaleur, was
formerly settled by the Acadians or French neutrals,
whose descendants remain in Westmoreland and North-
umberland counties.
Under the judicious and paternal care of Governor
Carleton, the difficulties attending infant colonies were
gradually overcome. The aboriginal inhabitants were a
rather superior class of Indians, and were not, as a body,
80 troublesome to the settlers as the savages had proved in
other portions of the country. They had the sagacity to
secure to themselves liberal allowances from the govern-
ment, as a condition of peace. In this they are supposed
to have been aided by the French missionaries among
them ; and they sometimes threatened to be turbulent as
a means of increasing their bounties.
In 1803, Governor Carleton removed to England, hav-
ing governed the provmce nearly twenty years, and seen
its advance from a rude wilderness to a state of importance
among the colonies. The government was then adminis-
tered by the following persons, under the style of Presi-
dents, till his death, viz. : — G. G. Ludlow, from his
departure till February, 1808 ; Edward Winslow, from
that period till the 24th of May following ; then Major-
general Hunter, who held the government till 1812, with
■■» is
ifi
A^i
646
EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNS"'VICK.
two short exceptions, during which it devolved, first, on
Lieutcnant-Coh)iiel Jolinstone ; atlcrward on Major-Gen-
eral Balfour ; tlien on Major-General Smyth, who, going to
England in 1813, left it witli Major-General Saumarez,
and, on his leaving the country again, in 1814, the duties
of the office devolved on Lit^utenant-Colonel IlailCvS.
On the death of Governor Carleton, Major-General
George Stracey Smyth was appointed to the government,
by commission dated Feb. 28, 1817. Governor Smyth
died March 27, 1823, when the administration devolved
first on Ward Chipman, then on John Murray Bliss, Es-
quires. In the mean time Major-General Sir Howard
Douglas received the appointment, and assumed the gov-
ernment in August, 1824.
The population of the province at that time was esti-
mated in round numbers at eighty thousand. The census
for 1824, supposed to fall a little short of the actual number
of inhabitants, exhibited a return of seventy-four thousand
one hundred and seventy-six, besides the large settlement
of Madawaska and the parish of West Isles.
After the close of the second war with the United States,
in 1815, New Brunswick received another body of military
colonists. A portion of the disbanded men of several regi-
ments were settled on the upper ])art of the St. John
River, between Presque-Isle and the Indian Reserve.
In 1825, occurred the great fire on the Miramichi, for
whose extent and severity hardly a parallel is to be found
in the history of conflagrations. A very graphic descrip-
tion of the appalling disaster, written at the time, is well
worthy of preservation in this place.
THE GREAT MIRAMICHI FIRE OF 1825, AS DESCRIBED BY AN
EYE-WITNESS. (MR. COONEY.)
"The summer of 1825 was unusually warm in both hem-
ispheres, particularly in America, where its effects were
fatally visible in the prevalence of epidemical disorders.
During July and August extensive tires raged in diiferent
cd, first, on
Major-Gen-
lio, going; to
Saumarez,
I:, the duties
lailes.
ijor-Genoral
3-ovenitncnt,
irnor Smyth
on devolved
iy Bliss, Es-
Sir Howard
led the gev-
me was esti-
The census
ctual number
four thousand
'26 settlement
United States,
dy of military
)f several regi-
the St. John
Reserve.
Miramichi, for
is to be found
aphie doscrip-
time, is well
CRIBED BY AN
n in both hem-
ts eifects were
lical disorders,
ed in diffe
EABLT HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
5*7
parts of Nova Scotia, especially in the divisions of the
peninsula. The protracted drought of the summer, acting
upon the- aridity of the forests, had rendered them more
than naturally combustible, and thus facilitating both the
dispersion and the progress of the fires that appeared in
the early part of the season, produced an unusual warmth.
On the 6th of October, the fire was evidently approaching
Newcastle ; at difierent intervals fitful blazes and flashes
were observed to issue from different parts of the woods, par-
ticularly up the north-west at the^ear of Newcastle, in the
vicinity of Douglastown and Moorfields, and along the
hanks of the Bartibog. Many persons heard the crack-
ling of falling trees and shrivelled branches, while a
hoarse rumbling noise, not dissimilar to the roaring of dis-
tant thunder, and divided by pauses like the intermittent
discharges of artillery, was distinct and audible. On the
7th of October the heat increased to such a degree, and
became so very oppressive, that many complained of its
enervating effects. About twelve o'clock a pale sickly
mist, slightly tinged with purple, emerged from the forest
and settled over it.
"This cloud soon retreated before a large dark one, which,
occupying its place, wrapt the firmament in a pall of va-
por: this encumbrance retaining its position till about
three clock, the heat became tormentingly sultry. Tliere
was not a breath of air ; the atmosphere was overclouded;
an irresistible lassitude seized the people, and a stupe-
fying dulness seemed to pervade every place but the woods,
which now trembled and rustled and shook with an in-
cessant and thrilling noise of explosions, rapidly following
each other, and mingling their reports with a discordant
variety of loud and boisterous sounds. At this time the
whole country appeared to be encircled by a fiery zone,
which, gradually contracting its circle by the devastations
it made, seemed as if it would not converge into a point
while any thing remained to be destroyed. A little after
four o'clock an immense pillar of smoke rose in a verti-
3d
I
«^flfV»ff|
548
EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
cal direction, at some distance north-west of Newcastle,
for a while, and the sky was absolutely blackened by this
huge cloud ; but a light northerly breeze springing up, it
gradually distended and then dissipated into a variety of
shapeless mists. About an hour after, or probably at half-
past five, innumerable large spires of smoke issuing from
distant parts of the woods, and illuminated by the flames
that seemed to pierce them, mounted to the sky.
*' A heavy and suflbeating canopy extended to the utmost
verge of observation, ajjd, appearing more terrific by the
vivid flashes and blazes that darted irregularly through it,
now hung over Newcastle and Douglas in threatening
suspension, while showers offlaming brands, calcined leaves,
ashes and cinders, seemed to scream through the growling
noise that prevailed in the woods. '^
" About nine o'clock or shortly after, a succession of loud
and appalling roars thundered through the forests. Peal
after peal, crash after crash, announced the sentence of
destruction. Every succeeding shock created fresh alarm ;
every clap came loaded with its own destructive energy.
With greedy rapidity did the flames advance to the de-
voted scene of their ministry ; nothing could impede their
progress ; they removed every obstacle by the desolation
they occasioned, and several hundred miles of prostrate
forests and smitten woods marked their devastating way.
" The river, tortured into violence by the hurricane,
foamed with rage, and flung its boiling spray upon the
land. The thunders pealed along the vault of heaven;
the lightning appeared to rend the firmament. For a mo-
ment and all was still — a deep and awful silence reigned
over every thing. All nature appeared to be hushed, when
suddenly a lengthened and sullen roar came booming
through the forest, driving a tliousand massive and devour-
ing flames before it. Then Newcastle and Douglastown,
and the whole northern side, extending from Bartibog to
the Naashwaak, a distance of more than one hundred miles
in length, became enveloped in an immense sheet ol flame,
7K.
of Newcastle,
;kened by this
ringing up, it
to a variety of
obably at half-
e issuing from
by the flames
I sky.
id to the utmost
territic by the
u-ly through it,
in threatening
calcined leaves,
;h the growling
iccession of loud
e forests. Peal
the sentence of
ted fresh alarm ;
tractive energy,
.rance to the de-
iild impede their
>y the desolation
lies of prostrate
3vastating way.
f the hurricane,
spray upon the
ault of heaven;
nent. For a mo-
d silence reigned
be hushed, when
r came booming
issive and devour-
md Douglastown,
from Bartibog to
)ne hundred miles
nso sheet ot flame,
EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
54'J
that spread over nearly six thousand square miles ! That
the stranger may form a faint idea of the desolation and
misery, which no pen can describe, he must picture to
himself a large and rapid river, thickly settled for one
hundred miles or more on both sides of it, lie must also
fancy four thriving towns, two on each side of this river,
and then reflect that these towns and settlements were all
composed of wooden houses, stores, stables, and barns ;
that these barns and stables were filled with crops, and
that the arrival of the fall importations had stocked the
warehouses and stores with spirits, powder, and a variety
of combustible articles, as well as the necessary supplies
for the approaching winter. He must then remember
that the cultivated or settled part of the river is but a long
narrow strip, about a quarter of a mile in width, and
lying between the river and almost interminable forests,
stretching along the very edge of its precincts and all
around it. Extending his conception, he will see these
forests thickly expanding over more than six thousand
square miles, and absolutely parched into tinder by the
protracted heat of a long summer. Let him then animate
the picture by scattering countless tribes of wild animals,
hundreds of domestic ones, and even thousands of men
through the interior. Having done all this, he will have
before him a feeble description of the extent, features, and
general circumstances of the country which, in the course
of a few hours, was suddenly enveloped in a fire. A
more ghastly or a more revolting picture of human misery
cannot well be imagined. The whole district of culti-
vated laud was shrouded in the agonizing memorials of
some dreadful deforming havoc. The songs of gladness
that formerly resounded through it were no longer heard,
for the voice of misery had hushed them. Nothing broke
upon the ear but the accents of distress ; the eye saw
nothing but ruin, and desolation, and death.
"Newcastle, yesterday a flourishing town, full of trade
and spirit, and containing nearly one thousand inhabi-
'n\
1,
I *
:.'i
tf!>
riei
!
if
»,l^.i
■I: ■ n:
Ir ■■>■■:■■
ooO
EAKLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
tants, was now a heap of smoking ruins ; and Douglas-
town, nearly one-third of its size, was reduced to the same
miserable condition. Of the two hundred and sixty
houses and storehouses that comprised the former, hut
twelve remained ; and of the seventy that composed tho
latter, but six were left. The confusion on board one hun-
dred and fifty large vessels then lying in the Miramichi,
and exposed to imminent danger, was terrible ; some
burnt to the water's edge, others burning, and the remaiu-
der occasionally on fire.
" Dispersed groups of half-famished, half-naked, and
houseless creatures, all more or less injured in their per-
sons, many lamenting the loss of some property, or chil-
dren, or relations and friends, were wandering through the
cou-itry. Of the human bodies, some were seen with their
bowels protruding ; others with the flesh all consumed,
and the blackened skeletons smoking ; some with headless
trunks and severed extremities ; some bodies burned to
cinders ; others reduced to ashes ; many bloated by suffo-
cation, and several lying in the last distorted position of
convulsing torture. Brief and violent was their passage
from life to death, and rude and melancholy was their
sepulchre. ' unknelled, uncofRned, and unknown.'
" The immediate loss of life was upwards of five hundred
human beings. Thousands of wild beasts had perished in
the woods, and from their putrescent carcasses issued
streams of effluvium and stench that formed contagious
diseiises over the dismantled settlements. Domestic ani-
mals of all kinds lay dead and dying in different parts of
the country; myriads of salmon, trout, bass, and otlier
tish, poisoned by the alkali formed by the ashes pre-
cipitated into the river, row lay dead, or floundering
and gasp'.ig on the scorched shores and beaches ; and the
countless variety of wild fowl and reptiles shared a similar
fate. Such was the awful conflagration at Miramicbi,
which elicited the prompt benevolence of very many
philantliropists of the old and new worlds, who subscribed
lass, and other
EAKLY HISTOEY OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
551
£40,000 for the relief of the survivors, whose property,
to the extent of nearly a quarter of a million, was destroyed.
" New Brunswick, like the other British provinces in
North America, has suffered much ironi fires. In 1837,
a great fire in St. John consumed one hundred and fifteen
buildings, and occas'oned a loss of a million dollars."
Sir Howard Douglas held the office of governor, or,
rather, lieutenant-governor, which is the official title of
the executive officer, till 1831, and did much to improve
the country and advance its prosperity. His successors
have been :
Sir Archibald Campbell 1 S32 to 1838 i
Sir John Harvey 1838 " 1842
Sir W. M. G. Colebrooke 1842 " 1 851
Sir E. W. Head 1851 " 1855
Hon. Mannerp ratton 1855 " 1862
In 1851, the population of the province had reached
the number of two hundred and ten thousand.
One of the most important events in the history of New
Brunswick was the settlement of the boundary question
with the United States, by the treaty of "Washington, in
1842.
By the treaty of peace in 1783, the boundary lines,
between the loyal and the revolted provinces, were so im-
perfectly defined that they coi'tinued for more than half
a century to be the subject of dispute. Efforts were
made from time to time to reconcile conflicting claims
and interests, but without avail. In 1839, the contro-
versy between New Brunswick and Maine had arrived to
such a pass that arined forces were raised, fortifications
built, and the prospect of actual warfare became im-
minent.
In this crisis, the English and American governments,
abandoning all the futile plans of arbitration which had
60 long been discussed, and even tried, adopted the policy
of compromise. They ultimately succeeded in agreeing
upon a line of division, which, as it fully satisfied neither
i
^m
f.W'
ii
i«!f.
1
n^'i
552
DESCEI11IVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
party, may be regarded as, on the whole, an equitable
one.
By this treaty, which was fully ratified in August,
1842, New Brunswick not only secured protection and
tranquillity to her inhabitants, but gained a large accession
of territory. This was estimated by Mr. Talcott, the
United States commissioner appointed to make the survey,
to contain eight hundred and ninety-three square miles, —
equal to five hundred and seventy-one thousand five hun-
dred and twenty acres. This country may be rough, and,
as represented by the commissioner, compared with other
sections, not of great value for timber or for agricul-
ture. It is, however, an important acquisition to the
province, and especially as it opens a convenient means
of communication with Canada without crossing a foreign
State. In compensation for this advantage, the right of
free passage on the St. John, with all unmanufactured
articles of trafllc, was ceded to the people of Maine.
If the climi.te of New Brunswick is cold, it is remark-
ably healthful. Its soil is in many parts highly produc-
tive, and it has many resources for profitable traffic. A
careful observer and writer states that the children of
immigrants are taller and larger than their parents, that
the women are handsome, and the men active and intel-
ligent.
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF NEW
BRUNSWICK.
The Province of New Brunswick is situated between
the parallels of 45° and 48° north latitude, and the me-
ridians of 63° 45' and 67° 50' west longitude. It lies
between Nova Scotia and Canada, with its eastern front
on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and its southern front on the
Bay of Fundy, being bounded westerly by the State of
Maine, and on the north by Canada.
The area of New Brunswick is estimated at 17,677,360
T OF NEW
i at 17,677,360
DESCEIPnVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
553
acres, equal to 27,620 square miles. Of this quantity,
more than 6,000,000 of acres have been already sold or
alienated by the crown, leaving upwards of 11,000,000 of
acres yet to be disposed of. The quantity of good land fit
for settlement and yet unsold, is estimated at 7,500,000
acres, of which 250,000 are surveyed for settlers.
The mode of selling crown lands is by auction ; and
sales take place every month in. each county. The upset
price is three shillings currency per acre, equal to two
shillings and five-pence sterling, payable one-fourth on the
day of sale, and the residue in one, two, and three years,
without interest. If the whole amount is paid at the time
of sale, the purchaser is entitled to a discount of 20 per
cent., which reduces the price to two English shillings
per acre. To ^his must, however, be added the expense
of survey, three-pence currency, equal to two and a half
pence sterling per acre.
When several persons, desirous of becoming actual set-
tlers, apply jointly for lots of vacant land, in a locality
where no roads exist, they can procure such lots, not ex-
ceeding one hundred acres each, and pay for the same in
labor on roads, to be laid out leading to or through their
land. In such cases the applicantp pay for the survey of
the land, and at the rate of three shillings currency, equal
to two shillings and five-pence sterling per acre. The
road-work is done at such times and places as are fixed
upon by the commissioners £ pointed for that purpose.
No less work is to be done in any one year than will be
equal to one-fourth the whole purchase-money ; and no
grant will issue until the purchaser has actually resided
on the land for one year, and brought at least ten acres
into a state of cultivation.
A third mode of disposing of crown lands for actual
settlement, has recently been adopted ; full particulars of
which will be found in the appendix hereto.
Professor J. F. W. Johnston, F. R. S., the well ^ nowu
writer on agriculture and agricultural chemistry, was em-
Wim
'It,
^- I 1
V 'II
554
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
ployed by tlie government, in 184:9, to make an inspection
of Nevv Brunswick, and report upon its agricultural capa-
bilities. In his report, subsequently published by author-
ity, he thus describes New Brunswick : —
" Two very ditferent impressions in regard to the Province of New
Brunswick will be produced on the mind of the stranger, according
as he contents himself with visiting the towns, and inspecting the
hinds which lie along the seaboard, or ascends the rivers, or penetrates
by its numerous roads into the inferior of its more central and northern
counties,
" In the former case, he will feel like tlie traveller wlio enters Swe-
den by the harbor of Stockholm or of Gottenburg, or who sails
among the rocks on the west coast of Norway. The naked cliffs, or
shelving shores, of granite or other hardened rocks, and the unvary-
ing pine forests, awaken in liis mind ideas of hopeless desolation, and
poverty and barrenness appear necessarily to dwell within the iron-
bound shores,
"A large proportion of the Europeans who visit New Brunswick,
see only tlic rocky regions which encircle the more frequented har-
bors of the province. They must, therefore, carry away and convey
to others very unfavorable ideas, especially of its adaptation to agri-
cultural purposes.
" But, on the other hand, if the stranger penetrate beyond the At-
lantic shorts of the province, and travel through the interior, he will
be struck by the number and beauty of its rivers, by the fertility of
its river isUmds and intervals, and by tlie great extent and excellent
condition of its roads, and, upon the whole, of its numerous bridges.
He will see boundless forests still unreclaimed; but will remark at the
Bame time an amount of general progress and prosperous advance-
ment, which, considering the recent settlement and small revenue of
the province, is really surprising. If he possesses an agricultural eye,
he may discern great defects in the practical husbandry of the provin-
cial fiiriiicr, while he remarks, at the same time, the healthy looks of
their large families, and the apparently easy and independent condi-
tion in wiiich they live, if he have travelled much in other coun-
tries, one thing which will arrest his attention more than all, will be
the tVecinent comj)laints whicli meet his ears, of the slowness with
which tlie province advances, of the condition of its agriculture com-
part"! sviih that of Scotland or England, of the want of capital among
it^ l.iiid possessing farmers, and so on; complaints which would be
made regarding New Hrunswick witli very much less urgency, were
the rate of its own actual progress better known to its iniiabitants,
and its own rural and economical condition better understood and ap-
prt.Vuited.
" For my own part, in taking a general survey of the actual condi-
tion of the province, in connection with the period of its early settle-
ment, and with the public revenues it has possessed from time to
time as means of improvement, I have been much impressed with
the rapid progress it has really made, and with the large amount of
Bucial advancement which is everywhere to be aeen. Ihe roads, the
1 inspection
Itural capa-
by author-
)vince of New
if^er, according
■iispecting the
- , or penetrates
i\ and uortliera
\o enters Swe-
or who sails
naked cliffs, or
id the unvarjr-
desolation, and
ithin the iron-
ew Brunswick,
Vequented har-
'ay and convey
station to agri-
beyond the At-
iiterior, he will
the fertility of
t and excellent
iiierous bridges,
ill remark at the
perous advance-
mail revenue of
agricultural eye,
ry of the provin-
lealtliy looks of
ependent condi-
1 in otiier coun-
than all, will be
e slowness with
agriculture com-
)f capital among
tvhich would be
8 urgency, were
) its iniiabitants,
Jerstood and ap-
;he actual condi-
:' its early settle-
id from time to
impressed with
large amount of
Ibe roads, the
DESCBITTrVE AND STATISTICAL ACXX>UNT.
555
bridges, the churches, ths schools, the colleges, besides the numerous
(itiier public institutions, axcellent and liberal in themselves, assume a
very large magnitude in the eyes of the impartial observer, when it is
considered that they have been made, built, or establislied, and pro-
vided for by a population even at present under two hundred thousand
souls, less in number than the inhabitants of one of our third-rate Eng-
lish cities, and in the short space of sixty or seventy years. "When I
have heard natives of New Brunswick complaining of the slowness
witii which their province advanced, I have felt persua<led that the
natural impatience of a young people to become great, like that of a
young man to become rich, was blinding them to tiie actual rate at
which their country was going forward, a rate so different from what
is to be seen in any part of the old world, with the exception of the
Island Home from which we all come.
" In justice to New Brunswick, I must add another remark. In
every part of the world it has been my fortune to visit, I have met
with numerous individuals who were more or less interested in, and
were anxious to promote the agricultural improvement of their na-
tive country. But in New Brunswick, a more general feeling appears
to prevail upon this subject, among all educated persons, than I have
ever met with before.
"In the province of New Brunswick, whatever defects its hus-
bandry nuiy exhibit, and they are many, it has been satisfactory to
me to find, that a development of its agricultural resources by the
improvement of its agricultural practice, and independent of immi-
gration, has begun to manifest itself distinctly. Improved imple-
ments, and breeds of cattle and sheep, imported grain and grass seeds,
skilful ploughing, the preparation of composts, with experiments in
draining, in the use of lime and gypsum, in the growth of green crops
and feeding of stock — these and other similar forms of improvement
which have come under my notice in the province, show that there
are some at least who not only desire to advance the general condi-
tion of its husbandry, but who are aware also of the first steps which
ought to be taken to promote this advancement."
In 1845, commissioners were appointed by Her Majes-
ty's government to explore and survey the route for a
railway from Halifax to Quebec, across the province of
New Brunswick. In their report, submitted to parlia-
ment in 1849, signed by Major Robinson, R. E., the
province is thus described :
"Of the climate, soil, and capabilities of New Brunswick it is im-
possible to speak too highly. There is not a country in the world bo
beautifully wooded and watered.
"An inspection of the map will show that there is scarcely a sec-
tion of it without its streams, from the running brook up to the navi-
gable river. Two-thirds of its boundary are washed by the sea ; the
remainder is embraced by tlie large rivers, the St. John and the
Restigouoh^. For beauty and richness of scenery, this latter river
and its branches are not surpassed by any thing in Great Britain.
whi
1
1
WMl
Jhj
II
'nB.B
U
^1
HM
'Hh
iBi'
i< HlHr
iij^Hi
' ■iHl'
jHn;
IH
H
P|h|
II-
■i
556
DESCRirTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
"The lakes of New Brunswick are numerous and most beaul.ful ;
it8 surface is undulating, Iiill and dale, varying up to mountain and
valley. It is everywhere, except a few peaks of the higliest moun-
tains, covered with a dense forest of the finest growth.
" The country can every wiiere be penetrated by its streams. In
some parts of tiie interior, by a portage of tiiree or four miles, a
canoe can float away, either to the Bay of Chaleur and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, or down to St. John in the Bay of Fundy.
" Its agricultural capabilities, climate, etc., are described in Bou-
chette's work, in Martin's British Colonies, and other authors. The
coantry is by them, aud most deservedly so, highly praised."
CLIMATE.
Although the winters of New Brunswick are somewhat
severe (less so, however, than those of Lower Canada),
yet the climate is exceedingly healthy. Fever and ague
are wholly unknown ; epidemics, even of a slight nature,
are exceedingly rare, and the country is absolutely with-
out an endemic, or disease peculiar to itself.
Professor Johnston in his report says, that the province
has an exceedingly healthy climate. Every medical man
lie met in the country assured him of this ; and the
healthy looks and the numerous families of the natives,
of all classes, confirmed these assurances.
On the shores of the Bay of Fundy there is much fog
during the summer season, but this extends a short dis-
tance only into the interior. The city of St. John is fre-
quently wrapped in a dense sea-fog, while the days are
bright and cloudless at the distance of a few miles only.
In the interior of the province, the air is much warmer
in summer than on the sea-coast; and there is a greatei de-
gree of cold in winter.
The ranges of temperature are : — At St. John, on the
Bay of Fundy, from 18° below, to 88° above zero.
At Hichibucto, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from 20° -
below, to 90^ above zero.
At Fredericton, in the interior, from 24"* below, to 95°
above zero.
The following observations were made on the weather,
at an altitude of 132 feet above high-water mark in the city
much fog
I short dis-
ohn is fre-
B days are
miles only.
eh warmer
greatei de-
hn, on the
jro.
3, from 20' •
low, to 95*
le weather,
in the city
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 557
of St. John, which is in latitude 45° 1' north, and longi-
tude 66° 4:' west.
1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.
Highest temperature 87 88 84 85
Lowest temperature 14 15 6 18
Clear, days 178 200 194 181
Cloudy days 116 124 112 124
Stormy days 72 41 59 66
Snow, iu inches 89 46 117 43
Rain, in inches 48 37 "6 33 40
There are not more than four snow-storms in any one
year, in which over a foot of snow falls at any one time ;
and snow-storms rarely last more than two days. In
England, nine inches of snow, when melted, average one
inch of water; in New Brunswick, seventeen inches
melted, average one inch of water. The snow is there-
fore twice as light, or dry, as that of England.
COURSE OF THE SEASONS.
Tlie winter is fairly established at Christmas. In Jan-
uary, as in the other North American colonies, there is the
usual thaw ; in February is the deepest snow, which sel-
dom exceeds four feet on the average in the northern por-
tion of the province, and three feet in the southern por-
tion. In March, the sun acquires much power, and the
snows begin to melt. . In the cleared country the snow
disappears in April, and spring ploughing commences.
Seed-time continues, according to the season, from the last
week in April until the end of May. In June, the apple-
trees are in full blossom; in July, wild strawberries of,
iiiie flavor are ripe and in abundance ; haying then be-
gins. In August, early potatoes are brought to market,
as also rasj)berries and other wild fruits. In September,
oats, wheat, and other cereal grains are ready for the sickle ;
tliose are generally secured before October. The autumn
is long, and the weather is then delicious ; this is decided-
ly the most pleasant portion of the year. There are usu-
ally heavy rains in November ; but when not wet, the
weather is fine and pleasant ; the rivers generally close
f
J!
1
H|
i'
i-ft'
: ? ■■■ i
•'tim^mr''
I
%
' * ,
^t
M m
658
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
during the latter i)art of this month, and in December
winter fairly sets in.
From numerous returns which were furnished to Pro-
fessor Johnston from all parts of the Province, the follow-
ing facts were deduced. The average interval between
the earliest sowing and latest ploughing, — or mean length
of summer — is six months and twenty-two days. Of this
period, the growth of wheat and crops of spring corn re-
quires an average of three months and seventeen days.
After reaping the corn crops, there is generally about
seven weeks clear for ploughing before winter sets in. Be-
fore the average sowing time in spring, there is usually
about six weeks, during which ploughing and other pre-
paratory treatment of the land can be carried on.
The number of days during which rain impedes the oper-
ations of the British farmer, is notoriously very great ;
and in those parts of the United Kingdom where the soil
is of a peculiarly tenacious character, it not only shortens
the period during which the work of preparing the land
can be done, but it also makes it heavier and more diffi-
cult to do. But in New Brunswick the climate is more
steady and equable. Rains do not so constantly fall ; and
when they do descend, the soils in most parts of the Prov-
ince are so porous, that they readily pass through. The
out-door operations of the New Brunswick farmer are less
impeded by rain, and the disposable time he possesses,
compared with that of the British farmer, is really not to
be measured by the number of days at the disposal of
each, but by the number of days during which each can
work out of doors.
The severe frosts in winter generally penetrate so deep
into the ground, especially when it is not covered with
grass, as to raise up and separate the particles from each
other, to a considerable depth ; so that when the thaw
comes, it is already so loose and open as scarcely to require
ploughing at all, or if ploughed, to be done with little force
and great speed.
)ccember
to Pro-
le t'oUow-
betweea
an length
Of this
corn re-
en days,
ly about
in, Be-
s usually
)ther pre-
i the oper-
ry great;
•e the soil
Y shortens
the land
nore diffi-
te is moi'e
^fall; and
' the Prov-
ugh. The
er are less
possesses,
dly not to
lisposal of
each can
te so deep
^ered with
from each
the thaw
' to require
little force
PESCBIPnVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
559
An Ayrshire farmer settled in New Brunswick, whose
long experience with Scottish agriculture entitles his opin-
ion to much weight, says : — " The frost of winter leaves
the land in a very pliable state, and in a better order for
green crops than any number of ploughings done in win-
ter could make it. On this account, I believe, a pair of
horses coald work as much land here, under a given rota-
tion, as they would in Scotland."
Though the period for out-door labor is shorter in New
Brunswick — as it is in Canada, Maine, and the North-
ern States — than in EnglanQ^ or in parts of Scotland, yet
the action of winter upon the soil is such as materially
to lessen the labor necessary to bring it into a proper
state of tillage. There is nothing therefore in the length
of the winter of New Brunswick, or the shortness of its
summer, which ought, where time is diligently employed
and its value known, to interfere seriously with the
progress of out-door operations, or to add materially to
the expenses of arable cultivation.
The manner in wiiich all root-crops thrive in the prov-
ince is really remarkable, and the frost is one of the
agents by which the large product is brought about, by
opening and pulverizing the soil. By tables of produce
heretofore published, it has been shown, that in potatoes
and turnips. New Brunswick greatly exceeds the present
average produce of any other part of North America with
which it lias been compared.
Very little attention is yet paid to the culture of flax,
which may be grown upon almost every farm in the prov-
ince. The same may be said of hemp, to the growth of
which some parts of the country are specially adapted, be-
cause of the rank rapidity with which vegetation proceeds
upon them. Wool-combing now affords employment to
some extent, and it will do so more largely, when greater
advantage is taken of the adaptation of the climate to
the rearing of sheep. The dressing of flax, hemp, and
wool offers means of winter employment, one or other of
II
1;
I!
i.t-^«r>f';iH» if* .?■
11 • i
. !■
! fm "'! ■' ' 'i
fi,''^^'i
■ i
560
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
which may be rendered profitably available, in most dis-
tricts.
The climate of New Brunswick is well fitted for the
rearinf]^ and feeding of cattle. With proper care, they
not only winter well, but gain size and flesh. In Resti-
gouche, the most northerly portion of the Province, the
climate is less severe upon stock than in Great Britain.
Though a large provision of winter food is required to
maintain the stock during so many months, yet by the
saving of manure npon farms of all kinds, even the newest,
and applying it to the grass land in the spring, and by
the cultivation of green crops, for which there are such
extraordinary capabilities, this food is easily raised. The
proper feeding of cattle during the winter, gives employ-
ment to the members of the farmer's family and his
paid-servants ; and it is also the means of producing more
manure, thus insuring the production of better beef and
mutton, a greater weight of butter and cheese, and heavier
harvests of grain.
Professor Johnston procured returns from all parts of
Ncvv Brunswick, of the produce of each crop, and its
weight per Winchester bushel. From these returns he
deduced the following statement of the average product
and weight of each, in the entire Province : —
Crop.
Wheat
Per acre. Weight per basheL
.20 bushels 60 11-12 lbs.
Barley 29
Oats 34
Buckwheat 33J
Rye 20t
Iruiiiin Corn 413-
Potatoes 226i
Turnips 456
or 6 1-3 tons,
or 13i tons. .
.50
.38
,48 8-11
.52i
.5H
.63
.66
"These average weights," says Professor Johnston,
" over a whole province, where the land is new, and ma-
nured only in rare instances, or at long intervals, indicate a
capacity in the soil and climate, to produce grain for hu-
man food, of a very superior quality."
1
most dift-
d for the
oare, they
In Resti-
)vince, the
at Britain,
equired to
yet by the
he newest,
ig, and by
3 are such
jsed. The
es employ-
ly and his
ucing more
ir beef and
and heavier
ill parts of
op, and its
returns he
kge product
lit per bastaeL
» 11-12 Iba.
I "
( "
1 8-11 "
i
I "
Johnston,
j\v, and ma-
is, indicate a
rrain for hu-
DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
THE FOREST.
661
After agriculture, the forests of New Brunswick consti-
tute at present its next greatest resource, in furnishing the
materials for iis staple export of timber, and its principal
manufactures — ship-building and sawed lumber.
The whole surface of the province, in its natural state,
J8^ with very few exceptions, covered with a dense forest
of timber-trees. Among these, the most valuable, as well
as the most interesting and majestic, is the white pine, so
called from the perfect whiteness of its wood when freshly
exposed. The wood is soft, light, free from knots, and
easily wrought ; it is durable, and not liable to split when
exposed to the sun. The white pine furnishes timber of
large dimensions, and boards of great width ; and its wood
is employed in far more divei'sified uses, and in greater
quantities, than that of any other tree in America.
The most usual forms in which white pine is extensively
exported from New Brunswick are — as. squared timber,
masts, spars, deals, plank, boards, scantling, clapboards,
palings, shingles, and laths ; also in boxes, barrels, water-
pails, and tubs. It would, however, be quite impossible to
enumerate the variety of purposes to which it is applied,
both in Europe and America.
Next to the white pine in commercial value, is the hlach
spruce. This tree is so multiplied in New Brunswick, as
to constitute a third part of the forests with which the
province is so uninterruptedly covered, and nowhere is it
found of larger size or finer quality. It often attains from
seventy to eighty feet in height, and from eighteen to
twenty-four inches in diameter.
The distinguishing properties of the wood of the black
spruce are, strength, lightness, and elasticity. It furnishes
as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and for
these it has been long and extensively used. By many,
the wood df the black spruce is preferred to that of the
white pine for flooring ; but its great value arises from its
i
!
i
1
\%]'':l
562
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
furnishing the spruce deals of commerce, which now con-
stitute one of tlie largest and most valuable exports of New
Brunswick. These deals are of the uniform thickness of
three inches, not less than twelve feet in length, and nine
inches in width. The most usual dimensions are nine
and eleven inches in breadth, and lengths of twelve, four-
teen, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty-one feet. Spruce bat-
tens are twelve feet long, seven inches in width, and two
and a half inches in thickness. The manufacture of spruce
deals commenced in New Brunswick in 1819, and has
since been steadily increasing. In 1851, there were five
hundred and eighty- four saw-mills in the province, driven
either by steam or water power, and since then the num-
ber has been continually on the Increase. The extent and
value of the exports of pine and spruce timber and deals,
will be seen by reference to the tables hereafter.
The next tree in the order of value is the American
larch^ which is known under a variety of names. The
French Canadians call it epinette rouge ^ the descend-
ants of the Dutch in America have called it tamaraoh
It is most generally designated in New Brunswick by its
Indian name, hackmatack. In the northern portion of the
province, and on the Gulf Shore, it is sometimes styled
cypress, but much more frequently juniper, to neither of
which designations has it the slightest claim.
The American larch, like that of Europe, is a magnifi-
cent tree, with a straight, slender trunk, eighty feet or
more in height, and upwards of two feet in diameter.
Trees of this size are most abundant in the north-eastern
portion of the province, but, of greater or less size, they
abound throughout New Brunswick. The wood of the
American larch unites all the properties which distin-
guish the European species, being exceedingly strong, and
singularly durable. It is highly esteemed, especially for
knees, the but of the stem and one of the principal roots
forming together the angle required. Few descriptions of
wood, if any, are superior to it for ship-planks and ship-
DE3CUIPTIVK AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
5(53
timber : and the clipper-8]iip3 of New Brunswick, built al-
most wholly of its larch wood, have attained a world-wide
celebrity for speed, strength, and durability.
After the three principal trees already named, come the
birch, the beech, the maple, the elm, the hemlock, the spruce,
the butternut, the ash, and the white cedar. Each of these
furnishes forest trees of large size ; and, in various shapes,
they are of more or less value for home use, as well as for
exportation.
There are four species of hirch in New Brunswick, all
of them tall trees. Of these, the black and vellow birch
are the most valuable, and furnish timber of the largest
size. The grain of the black birch is fine and close,
whence it is susceptible of a brilliant polish : it possesses,
also, very considerable strength. It is much used in ship-
building, for the keel, lower timbers, and planks of vessels ;
and, as it is almost indestructible under water, it is well
adapted for piles, foundation timbers, sluices, and in
general for any purpose where it is constantly wet. The
wood of the yellow birch is believed to bo somewhat
inferior to that of the black birch ; but the timber and
planks from both trees are exported indiscriminately,
under the general name of birch. Both species abound
in New Brunswick, and they are almost always found on
deep, loose, and wet soils, where they attain their largest
size, which is from sixty to seventy feet in height, and
more than two feet in diameter.
There are two species of heech found in New Brunswick,
the red and the white, but of these the red beech is far
the most valuable. In some situations, the beech is so
abundant as to constitute extensive forests, the finest trees
growing in a deep moist soil, or level or gently sloping
lands, which are suitable for the culture of grain. Tlie
wood of the red beech is very valuable when preserved
from humidity, and incorruptible when constantly in the
water ; but it rapidly decays when exposed to the alterna-
tions of dryness and moisture. In the bottoms of vessels,
36
7
504
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
it has been known to remain sound for forty years. It
Borves for slioe-lasts, tool-handles, plancc, and mallets, and
its ashes afford good potash. The nuts of the red beech
are produced every second year ; hogs fatten rapidly on
these nuts, but the pork is not esteemed. Bears, part-
ridges, squirrels, and mice, feed on them largely.
Very solid and elegant hedges may be made with young
beeches placed seven or eight inches apart, and bent in
opposite directions, so as to cross each other and form a
trellis, with apertures five or six inches in diameter.
During the first year, they are bound with osier at the
points of intersection, where they finally uecome grafted,
and grow together. As beech does not suffer in pruning,
and sprouts less luxuriantly than most other trees, it is
well adapted for hedges. The red beech is reared without
any difficulty from the seed; it grows rapidly, and, if the
soil is in good order, a handsome and sufficient hedge may
be produced in five or six years.
The maples^ in general, are lofty and beautiful trees;
they grow quick, are easily transplanted, and bear crop-
ping. The grass flourishes under their shade. They
prefer, and are generally found on a free, deep, and loamy
soil, rich rather than sterile, and neither v ^t nor very
dry. Of the several species of maple, the most, interesting
and the most valuable is the sugar-maple, also known a?
the rock aiaple, and !iard maple. It enters largely into
the composition of the forests with which New Brunswick
is covered, where it is found of the largest size, and in
great perfection. It frequently reaches the height of
seventy or eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter ; but
it does not generally exceed fifty or sixty feet, with a diam-
eter from twelve to eighteen inches. The sugar-maple is
most frequently found on the steep and shady banks of
rivers, and elevated situations whore the soil is cold and
humid, but free, deep, and fertile, and not surcharged
with moisture.
The wood of the sugar-maple, when first cut, is white;
irst c\it, is white;
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
565
but after being wrouglit, and exposed for some time to the
hp-ht, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain is fine and close, and
when polished has a silky lustre. It is very strong, and
Bufticiently heavy, but wants durability ; when exposed to
moisture it soon decays, and it is therefore neglected in
civil and naval architecture. In the arrangement of the
fibre, this wood frequently exhibits two accidental forms
of much beauty, respectively known as "curled maple,"
and "birds'-eye maple." These make very handsome
articles of furniture, and are much sought after by cabinet-
makers ; they are exported in considerable quantities to
the United Kingdom, where they bring a high price.
The birches, the beeches, and the maples all furnish ex-
cellent fuel, and for this purpose they are extensively used
in I^ew Brunswick. The sugar-maple, however, furnishes
the best fuel, and its ashes are rich in the alkaline princi-
ple. The charcoal made from it is superior to any other ;
it is one-fifth heavier than that made from the same
species of wood in the Middle and Southern States, which
sufficiently evinces that the sugar-maple acquires its char-
acteristic properties, in perfection, only in a northern
climate.
But the most valuable property of this tree is the quan-
tity of sugar it furnishes ; and the extraction of sugar
from the maple is a valuable resource in a country where
all classes of society daily make use of tea and coffee.
The process by which it is obtained is very simple, and is
everywhere nearly the same. Though not essentially de-
fective, it might be rendered more perfect, and more
profitable, by a little more attention to science. The
work usually commences in the month of March, while
the cold continues intense, and the ground is still covered
with snow. The sap begins to be in motion at this early
season, and is obtained by boring small holes in the trunks
of the trees, from which it flows freely. It is then put
into kettles ; the evaporation is kept up by a brisk fire,
night and da}'^, and the scum is carefully taken off as it
i.,
#1
w
Vjll
,r B
t
T
»!
4
i
i
566
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
rises. Fresli sap is added as required, and the heat is
maintained until the liquid is reduced to a sirup, after
which it is left to cool, and then strained to remove ihe
remaining impurities. In boiling it for the last time, the
kettles are only half filled, and by an active, steady heat,
the sirup is rapidly reduced to the proper consistency for
being poured into moulds. The molasses being drained
oli' the moulds, the sugar comes out in hard, solid blocks.
The larger the boiler, the more sugar is obtained ; and
a copper vessel produces sugar of a fairer color than an
iron vessel. Tiie sugar is lightly colored in proportion to
the care with which it is made, and the judgment with
which the evaporation is conducted. When refined, it
equals in beauty the finest sugar used in Europe.
The sap continues to flow for six weeks, after which it
becomes less abundant, less rich in saccharine matter,
and sometimes even incapable of crystallization. In this
state, it is consumed in the state of molasses, far superior
to that from the AVest Indies, and bears the name of
" maple honey."
The amount of sugar manufactured in a year, varies
from difi'erent causes. A cold and dry winter renders the
trees more productive than a cliaugeable and humid sea-
son. When frosty nights are followed by dry and warm
days, the sap flows abundantly, and from three to five
gallons are then yielded by a single tree, in twenty-four
hours. Three persons are found suflicient to attend two
'mndred and fifty trees. Each tree of ordinary size yields,
in a good season, twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from
which five or six pounds of sugar are made ; but the aver-
age quantity, in ordinary seasons, is about four pounds to
ciich tree.
By the census return for I80I, it appears that the whole
quantity of maj>le sugar made in JS'ew Brunswick in that
year, was 350,957 pounds.
There are two well-defined species of Elm in New
Brunswick, known as the white elm and the red elm.
DESCltlPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
507
Both species are beautiful, and well adapted to make
shady walks, as they do not destroy the grass ; and their
leaves are acceptable to cows, horses, goats, sheep, an*,
swine.
The white elm stretches to a great hei^'ht. In clearing
the primitive forests a few stocks are sometimes left stand-
ing ; and, isolated in this manner, tlie tree appears in all its
majesty, towering to the height of eighty or one hundred
feet, with a trunk of three or even four feet in diameter,
regularly shaped, naked, and insensibly diminishing to the
height of sixty or seventy feet, when it divides itself into
two or three primary limbs. These diffuse on all sides
long, flexible, pendulous branches, bending into regular
arches and floating lightly in the air and giving to the
tree a broad and somewhat flat-topped summit, of regular
proportions and admirable beauty.
In autumn, the bright golden foliage of the elm mixes
kindly with the various hues of the poplar and the maples,
which display all sh>.des of red, and from the deepest crim-
son to the brightest orange. Its tint then contrasts favor-
ably with the pale-yellow, sober foliage of the birch and
beech, with the diff'ereut shades of brown in the basswood
and the ash, or with the bulf-yellow of the larch. At that
season, even the gloomy blackness of the flrs, by throwing
forward the c-avcr tints, is not without its effect.
Mr. McGregor, in his work on British America, speak-
ing of the forests, says, — " It is impossible to exaggerate
the beauty of these forests ; nothing under heaven can be
compared to their eflulgcnt grandeui-. Two or three tVosty
nights in th(3 decline of autuinn, transform the boundless
verdure of a whole empire into every possible tint of bril-
liant scarlet, rich violet; every shade of blue and brown,
vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexora-
ble fir tribes alone maintain their eternal sombre greer. ; all
others, on mountains or in valleys, burst into the most
glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid
and most enchanting panorama on oarth."
wm
'i ■ * •
m
1.1
i If
:.ii^-h]
> i-
'■t
568
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
The white elm delights in low, humid, substantial soili»,
such as are called in New Brunswick, " intervale lands,"
along the banks of rivers or streams, or on the borders of
swamps, where the soil is deep and fertile. The rich
" iiitervales," formed by alluvial deposits, are necessary to
its perfection. The wood has less strength than the oak,
and less elasticity than the ash, but it is tougher and less
liable to split. It is said to bear the driving of bolts and
nails better than any other timber. When exposed to the
alternations of dryness and moisture, it is liable to decay;
it must be either wet or dry in the extreme. Consequently
it is proper for waterworks, mills, pumps, aqueducts, and
ship planks beneath the water-line. When fully seaioned,
the wood is highly esteemed for the carriages of cannon,
and for the gunwales and blocks of ships.
The red elm is less multiplied than the white, and the
two species are rarely found together, as the red elm re-
quii'cs a substantial soil, free from moisture, and even
delights in elevated and open situations. This tree is fifty
or sixty feet high, and fifteen or twenty inches in diameter.
The wood is less compact than that of the white elm, and
of coarser grain ; but it is said to be stronger and more
durable when exposed to tlie weather, and of better quality
than the wood of the white elm.
The hemlock spruce forms a large proportion of the
evergreen forests of New Brunswick, and is abundantly
multiplied in every favorable situation. It is always larger
and taller than the black spruce, and frequently attains
the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of
two to three feet, and unitbrm for two-thirds of its length.
The properties of this spruce are such as to give it only a
secondary importance, notwithstanding its abundant diifu-
sion : and it has heretofore been considered among the
least valuable of the large resinous trees of New Bruns-
wick. Yet it is well adapted for mining, for wharf-build-
ing, or for use in situations where it is constantly wet. It
gives a tight hold to nails, and iron driven into it will not
J
INT.
stantial soib,
srvale lands,"
le borders of
e. The rich
3 necessary to
than the oak,
o-her and less
of bolts and
xposed to the
ible to decay ;
Consequently
qneducts, and
"uUy seasoned,
^es of c^mnon,
rhite, and the
le red elm re-
tire, and even
his tree is fifty
es in diameter,
white elm, and
iger and more
f better quality
)portion of the
is abundantly
Is always larger
quently attains
a diameter of
is of its length.
) give it only a
abundant ditfu-
red among the
of New Bruns-
'or wharf-build-
stantly wet. It
into it will not
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
509
corrode,. in or out of water. Large quantities are shipped
to Great Britain in the shape of lath-wood, from which
split laths are made.
The wood of the hemlock spruce is firmer than that of
the white pine ; although coarser grained, it gives a better
hold to nails, and offers more resistance to the impression
of other bodies. As two-inch plank, it is frequently em-
ployed for threshing-floors, and also for grain-bins, because,
as it is alleged, rats will not gnaw the wood. As inch-
boards, its most common use is for the first coverino; of
the frames of houses, called "rough-boarding," which is
afterward covered either with clap-boards, siding, or
shingles of white pine. When guarded from wet, the
wood of the hemlock spruce is as durable as any other
species of spruce, or even pine. The bark is extensively
used in tanning.
Only one species of the walnut is found in New Bruns-
wick, which is well known by the name of butternut. It
is abundant on the rich alluvial banks of the rivers, and
in such situations frequently attains the height of eighty feet,
and the circumference, at four feet from the ground, of six to
eight feet. The fruit is commonly single, and suspended by a
thin, pliable foot-stalk ; it is often two and a half inches
in length, and five inches in circumference. The nuts are
hard, oblong, rounded at the base, and terminated at tlie
summit in an acute point. They are ripe in October, and
in some seasons are so abundant, that one person may
gather several bushels in a day. The kernels are very
oily ; these the Indians, in former times, pounded and
boiled, and separating the oily substance which swam
upon the surface, mixed it with their food — hence the
name of " butternut."
The wood of the " butternut" is light, of little strength,
and of a reddish hue ; but it possesses the advantage of
lasting long, of being able to resist the effects of heat and
moisture, and of being secure from the ravages of worms.
Very considerable quantities of furniture are now made in
»
570
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
the province, of the butternut wood, and it is becoming
in request for a variety of purposes. For wainscoting, and
for fitting up libraries, it is well adapted, being easily
worked, of a pleasing color, and susceptible of a good
polish, which throws out the graining, and shows the wood
to advantage. It has been recently employed in the high-
est order of arcnitectural finishing, in the cathedral, and
various churches and chapels of the province, in the arches
and ceilings of which it is seen under favorable circum-
stances and greatly admired.
Bi/ternut wood has not yet become an article of export,
but the large size of which it can be produced, and its va-
rious good qualities, only recently become known, must
render it in demand. Tlie propagation of this tree is
very easy, either from the cuttings or from the nut; and
as it grows to the greatest advantage in pastures, and
along the sides of roads, it is advantageous to farmers to
cultivate it, as well for the beauty of the tree itself, and
the fruit it produces, as for the value of the wood at ma-
turity.
Of the ash,, there are two distinct species in ISew Bruns-
wick, the wliite ash and black ash. The wood of the ash
differs more, .from difference of soil and situation, than that
of any other tree ; consequently there are several varieties
in the province, but on close examination they may be
referred to one of the two species named.
The white ash is an interesting and valuable tree, from
the qualities of its wood, the rapidity of its growth, and
the beauty of its foliage : it abounds in New Brunswick.
In favorable situations, it sometimes attains the height ot
fifty or sixty feet, with a diameter of eighteen inches or
more. The trunk is perfectly straight, and often undivided
to the height of thirty feet. The wood of the white ash is
highly esteemed for its strength, suppleness, ajid elasticity ;
it is superior to every other wood for oars, and is second only
to hickory for handspikes. Besides its extensive use by
carriage and sleigh makers, it is in very general use for
I
T.
is bdcoraing
scoting, and
)eing easily
of a good
ws the wood
in the high-
thedral, and
in the arches
iblc circum-
le of export,
i, and its va-
:nown, must
this tree is
he nut ; and
pastures, and
to farmers to
30 itself, and
wuod at ma-
; I^ ew Bruns-
Dd of the ash
ion, than that
^eral varieties
they may he
>le tree, from
growth, and
V Brunswick,
the height ot
;en inches or
ten undivided
3 white asli is
ind elasticity;
is second only
ansive use by
sneral use for
DESCEirTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
571
agricultural implements. It is among the exports of the
province in the form of staves and planks.
The black ash is a tree of smaller size than the white ash,
and its wood is neither so strong nor so durable. Its wood
is not therefore in great request ; but as it may be sepa-
rated into thin, narrow strips, it is much used by the
Indians for the manufacture of baskets.
The lohite cedar abounds throughout New Brunswick.
It grows almost always in wet ground ; in swamps, the
trees sometimes stand so thick, that the light can hardly
penetrate their foliage. It is sometimes upwards of forty
feet in height, with a diameter of two feet and more at the
base. Usually, however, it is not more than ten or fifteen
inches in diameter, at five feet from the ground. It fre-
quently occupies exclusively, or in great part, swamps from
iifty to one hundred acres in extent, some of which are
accessible only in winter, when they are frozen and covered
with deej) snow. These " cedar swamps," when cleared
anddraim \ are noted for producing large crops of clover.
The wood of the white cedar is light, soft, fine-grained,
and easily wrought. It haS a strong aromatic odor, which
it preserves as long as it is guarded from humidity. The
perfect wood resists the succession of dryness ami moist-
ure for a great length of time, and this constitutes its great
value for fencing. Rails of split cedar, deprivcKl of the
bark, have been known to last for fifty years ; and shingles
for upwards of thirty years. The largest stocks of the
white cedar are much sought after by boat-builders, who
use it for boats employed in the fisheries. It possesses
superior fitness for various household utensils, especially
pails, tubs, and churns, which, instead of growing dull lik(
those of other wood, become whiter and smoother by use
It is chiefly exported in the form of posts and palings ,
but as the committee of Lloyd's have just determined to
admit white cedar of good quality for the third foot-hooks
and top timbers of ships, of the six and seven years' grade,
its value will hereafter be considerably enhanced.
111*
^11 :
'■
fi'i
II w
t
M
bKSCKIl'lIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT.
Ueriides the timber trees already inentioned, which are
ul iimcii value in an economical and commercial point of
view, there are a variety of other trees in the forests oi
New Brunswick, of less size and value, but yet exceedingly
useful in their way.
Among these may be mentioned the red and gray oak,
both trees of small size, but the latter furnishing wood of
great Weight, strength, and durability, which is much in
request for agricultural implements, as also for boats, car-
riages, and sleighs. The white maple and red flowering
maple are much smaller than the sugar-maple, and the sap
from them yields only half the quantity of sugar. Their
wood is much used in cabinet-work, in chair-making, and
for a variety of domestic utensils. The white birch and
canoe-birch are both trees of considerable size, furnishing
much fuel; and the bark of the canoe-birch is exceed
ingly useful for a variety of purposes, especially the con-
struction of canoes, and the making of boxes, dishes, and
a variety of ornamental articles. One of its many uses ia
being placed in large sheets beneath the shingles and clap-
boards, to render the houses drier, and less liable to be
penetrated with cold. The alders, the willows, and the
Mnld cherry-trees are all of small size, but useful for some
purposes. The fruit of the wild cherry is oftentimes very
abundant. Those wild cherries are about one-fourth of an
inch in diameter, of a roundish form, purplish-black color,
aiul edilde, but slightly bitter to the taste. They are
made into a cordial by infusion in rum or brandy, with the
addition of sugar ; this, when carefully made with brandy,
is superior to the IfirsGhenwasser, imported from Co])on-
hagen. There are two species of poplar, known* as the
balsam poplar (or balm of Gilead) and the American
aspen, both furnishing trees of considerable size, but of no
great value, except for ornamental purposes. The Amer-
ican lime, generally known as basswood, is a tree of large
ilze in New Brunswick, but not very abundant. It is
Bometimes met with more than eighty feet high, and four feet
I, which are
iial point of
le forests oi
exceedingly
id gray oak,
ing wood of
is much in
)r boats, car-
ed flowering
, and the sap
usjcar. Their
-making, and
te birch and
;e, furnishing
;h is exceed
ally the con-
s, dishes, and
many uses ia
gles and clap-
3 liable to he
lows, and the
seful for some
■tentimes very
le-fourth of aU
ih-black color,
;e. They are
[indy, with the
e with brandy,
. from Coi)on-
known* as the
the American
size, but of no
?. The Amer-
a tree of large
lundant. It is
;h, and four feet
UESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICiLL ACCOUNT.
573
in diameter ; its presence indicates loose, deep, and fertile
soil. The wood is soft, easily worked, and is used for the
panels of carriages, seats of chairs, and fans of faiiuing-
niills. The honiheam and ironwood are both found in
New Brunswick somewhat extensively. The wood of
eacli is exceedingly hard and tough, and capable of bear-
ing great weight ; but as they are both trees of the third
order only, their small size prevents their being so gener-
ally useful as if of larger dimensions.
Tiie white spruce is a tree of smaller size than the black
epruce, and the wood is of inferior quality, although the
deals made from it are mixed with those of black spruce,
"ithout distinction. The fibres of its roots, macerated in
\\ ater, are very flexible and tough ; they are used by the
Indians to stitch their canoes of birch bark, their dishes,
and water-pails, of the same material. The seams of the
canoes, and of the water-pails, are rendered water-tight by
a resin, improperly called gum, which exudes from knots
and wounds on the trunk of this tree, whence it is gath-
ered, melted, and boiled, to free it from impurities. The
Ajnerican silver fir, sometimes called balsam fir, is found
in greater or less abundance throughout New Brunswick.
Its height rarely exceeds forty feet, with a diameter from
twelve to sixteen inches. The wood of the silver fir is light,
and slightly resinous ; it lasts longer in the air than in water,
and its principal use hitherto has been in the form of
boards, for the outside covering of farm-buildings. The
great abundance and cheapness of white pine and spruce,
have caused the silver fir to be much undervalued. The
well-known fir balsam is procured from this tree. It is
naturally deposited in vesicles on the trunk and limbs, and
is collected ^^y bursting these tumors, and receiving the
contents in a shell or cup. In England, it is celebrated
for medicinal purposes, and is there generally known by
the lame of Canada balsam. The following statement
shows the quantities of the principal products of the
forest, exported from New Brunswick during five years :
'P
»
i)<4
Timhorjiiins)
Dlm1s(MIVmj,;
lJo;inls A 5)lniik /
(Mlbet) J
Masts it spars (Xo.)
Hliip-kiiw'S (Xo.). .
Laliiwooil (cunls)..
Sawo.l latlis(M)...
Shiii^rles (M)
Box-shooks (No.) . .
THE FISIIKUIKS.
111,14) It J.tJS.')
23,511 25,5:i8
I is-«o. • ih:>o. I l^.M.
!i;);t, (,')9 n;s,:{-ii|i()',i»i;.;
n,t,>si(i
21,00(;
7,8:ii
2,S(!1
2,54-J
4,i;.")-j
:iii,(i:!t;
7. 1 ')<;
8,2(;2
2,(t5:i|
<i,()(i:i!
4.78r,
5, 2 02
22,;!45j 22,!t!»;^
10,241, 48,521
29,481
is.'^'?.
I :! 4,888
2o:!,(;;ii)
10.047
9,;!81
9,45:5
2,475
5,85!!
28,771
GO,77J
i;n,:{8it
248,;i44
7,807
4,224
14.410
2,5i)5
20,025
:jO,1'.J7
43,275
127,.>i!7
25.s!00l
r.),25*;
:i.7!U
15,218
2,221!
10,1)72
24, SI! 7
124,072
1«%
112,i:U
180,817
2:!,099
0,:'.9.3
Hi,S4G
1,005
:!),o:i:!
:i 1.401
lio,02;t
Besides tlic prineipal urtielcs shown in this statement,
there were also c.Kported eoiisidarable quantities of tire-
wood, tanners' bark, railway sleepers, piekets, c-edar posts,
poles and riekers, handspikes, })alin<i;s, and elap-boards;
besides w<»od in a variety of other shapes, more or less
manufactured.
THE FISIIEIIIES.
The sea-coast of New Brunswick, as well in the Bay of
Fundy as within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, abounds with
fish of various descriptions; and all its rivers possess tish-
eries more or less valuable. As the fisheries in the Bay
of Fundy differ materially from those in the Grulf, they
will be described separately.
The Bay of Fuxdv. — The principal sea fisheries in the
bay are those for cod, pollock, hake, haddock, herring,
and mackerel. The chief fishini>: ii-rounds for these are
near the entrance to the bay, and in the vicinity of the
islands of Grand Manan, Camiio Bello, and the group
known as West Isles, whence the fishing is pursued along
the coast eastwardly to the harl)orof St. John, and some-
times much further up the bay. The estimated annual
value of these fisheries is about £-iO,000 sterling.
The fishing for cod, pollock, hake, and haddock, is with
hook and line only. It is chiefly followed by fishermen
resident on the coast and adjacent islands, in small open
boats, which 0:0 out in the morninf; and return in the
evening, except in hake fishing, which is pursued during
the night. The boats generally in use are from twelve to
eighteen feet in length ; the twelve feet boat has one
r
1S54. I 18.N5.
27,..tii 112, r.u
j.S.OOl
15,218
2,22:i
I'.MmJ
2l,s:!7
181),817
2:!,on'j
(',,:•. 9 3
l(i,S4G
l,t;i)j
:!i,<):i:t
:ii.4!)i
2.i,«72lllO,02;i
statement,
ties of tire-
cedar posts,
lap-boards ;
lore or less
the Bay of
)0urids with
possess tish-
iu the Bay
Gulf, they
heries in the
ick, herring,
or these are
nnity oi' tlio
I the group
irsued along
u, and soine-
,ated annual
ng.
lock, is with
•y lisheraieu
small open
iturn in the
sued during
)m twelve to
Doat has one
I
THE FISUEBIE8.
575
man, the eighteen feet boat usually three men. These
boats have sharp or pink sterns, witli one mast shipped
very close to the stem, and a mainsail very broad at the
foot, stretched well out with a light boom, and running up
to a point at the top. They sail uncommonly well, and
lie very close to the wind. Small schooners are also em-
ployed for winter fishing, and for the distant banks or
fishing grounds.
Tiie cod of the Bay of Fuudy are large and of the
finest quality, equal to any taken on the coast of Korth
America. They bear the highest price in the United
States market, being always selected for the best tables.
The cod fishery may be followed nearly the whole year,
when the weather permits, sometimes close to the land,
and at others ten or fifteen miles from it, in very deep
water, according to the season, and the course of the her-
rings, or other fish upon which the cod feed at different
times. When caught, the cod are usually split, salted,
and dried, and in that state are known as the dry cod of
commerce, which is always sold by the quintal of 112 lbs.
At those seasons when cod cannot be dry-cured, they are
salted in pickle, and packed in barrels ; these are called
" pickled cod."
The very best cod are taken at the close of winter, or
very early in the spring, m about sixty fathoms water.
These are a thick, well-fed fish, often attaining the weight
of 70 lbs. or 80 lbs. and sometimes more. The oil extract-
ed from the liver of the cod is valuable, and, when refined,
sells at a higli price for medicinal purposes. The tongues
and sounds of the cod are excellent eating; they are
pickled and sold as an article of food. The heads of the
cod contain much rich and delicate nutriment, which is
highly recommended to persons of weak constitution, and
to those whose systems have become debilitated ; but,
owing to the abundance of other excellent fish, the cods'-
heads are chiefly used for manure. When properly pre-
pared with other substances, they are believed to stimu-
Mil
r
:l
57<>
THE FISHERIES.
late vegetation nearly as much as gnano, while they
greatly enrich the soil, and render it in a better condition
lor future crops.
TlwjM'lock is one of the few ocean fishes which range
on l)oth sides the Atlantic ; on the coasts of Enghmd and
Irchmd, it is commonly known as the coalfish. Its season
for spawning is early in spring; in the early part of sum
mer the fish is lank and almost worthless. It becomes in
good condition in July, and improves as the season ad-
vances. It frequently swims at no great depth, and, when
attracted by bait, will keep near a boat or vessel until all
are taken.
Pollock fishing may be considered as one of the most
valuiible deep-sea fisheries of the Bay of Fundy. They
are often taken from boats at anchor, like the cod ; but, in
general, the best fishing for them is in the strong currents
between the islands of the bay, and in the " ripplings," or
agitated waters, formed by the conflict of tides rushing
through various narrow passages with great force. In
these the lively pollock delight to play, as there they find
abundance of small herrings for food. In the "ripplings"
they are taken from vessels under easy sail, the bait being
kept in brisk motion by the sailing of the vessel ; it then
closely resembles a living fish darting through the water,
and is eagerly chased by the pollock. They are split and
dry-cured like cod. Their abundance, and the facility
with which they are taken, often render this a profitable
fishery. Their livers, in the latter part of summer and
autuum, yield much valuable oil.
T\i(i hake is a large fish, frequentl}' three feet in length;
it is taken abundantly, chiefly by fishing during the night,
on muddy bottoms. Its jaws are furnished with several
rows of sharp incurved teeth, which rendej necessary an
armature of six or eight inches above the hook, as this fish
readily bites ofl' a common cod-line. It is split and dry-
cured like cod, but requ'r'^'s much more salt. The pickle
for hake is made of exceeding strength, a bushel of salt
s
THE FISHERIES.
577
being used for each quintal of fish. When sufficiently
cured, it is exported to the markets of the United States
and the West Indies.
The haddock is a small fish, found almost everywhere
near the shores of New Brunswick. It is exceedinjilv fine
wlion eaten fresh, or when slightly salted and smoked, in
the same manner as the Finnan haddocks of Scotland.
This fish is too thin to be of much value when salted and
dry-cured. The haddocks swim in immense shoals, and
SI f
are prone to change their ground frequently, no doubt in
pursuit of food, their consumption being enormous ; but
there are many localities in which they are almost certain
to be found at all seasons of the year. They are in the
best condition in autumn and winter, and are a favorite
object of pursuit with those who follow deep-sea fishing
as an amusement, affording good sport, and most delicious
fresh fish.
The pollock, the hake, and the haddock, when dry-
cured, are designated by dealers, " scale-fish," and have
only half the commercial value of the cod.
The herHng is found in great yariety and abundance
everywhere in the Bay of Fundy. The statements made
by the older naturalists, as to vast armies of herrings coin-
ing down annually from the Arctic Ocean, and making
the circuit of the seas, is now supposed to be wliolly
imaginary. It is at present believed that the herring
fattens in the depths of the ocean, and approaches the shore
in slioals, merely for the purpose of depositing its spawn.
It is quite certain that the common herring is caught in
the Bay of Fundy during every month in the year, which
quite precludes the idea of its being a migratory fish ; and
it is equally certain that particular varieties are always
caught in well-known localities, and not elsewhere.
Herrings are commonly taken in nets, set at night, in
the same manner as on the coasts of the United Kingdom.
These are cured in pickle, and packed in barrels ; they
form the ordinary pickled herrings of commerce. The
II, r
^ ''<i
m%
mm
-l !'
578
THE FISHERIES.
small herrings are taken in shallow bays and coves, in
weirs, formed of stakes driven at regular ''\tervals, and
interwoven with twigs, thus formi' g what is called a
" brush weir." The lish enter these weirs at high water,
and are taken out when the tide recedes and leaves them
dry, or nearly so, at low water. These small herrings arc
salted and smoked, and wlien ]>roperly cured are very
savory. They are packed in boxes of about twelve dozens
each, and sold at a low price ; the;^- enter largely into
domestic consun'ption, and form an aiticle of export of
very considerable amount.
The mackerel is a iish rather erratic in its habits, and
therefore no great de])endoiice can be placed upon tliis
fishery in the Bay of Futuly. Formerly, mackerel were
very abundant near Grand Manan and Campo Bello, where
but few are now taken, althougli the quantity has increased
of late years. Those taken are generally of small size,
and not at all equal to the mackerel of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, of which mention is made hereafter.
The halibut is a large flat iish, of the flounder family ;
it is frequently caught when fishing for cod. This fish
reaches the weight of 200 lbs., and sometimes much more.
In summer it is taken in shallow water, often quite near
the shore ; in winter it retires to deep water. The flesh,
though white and firm, is dry, and the muscular fibre
coarse, yet by many it is much esteemed ; the fins and
flaps are delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. When
a number of these fish are taken at one time, the fisher-
men salt the fle:ih lightly, and then dry and smoke it for
winter use.
The sea-shad of the Bay of Fuiidy is one of tlie most
delicious fish found in its waters. It is taken in long
drift-nets, attached to •■ boat, and thus kept stretched
across the tide, during the night oidy. Some are taken
oft" the harbor of St. John, but the principal fishery is
within Cumberland Basin, at the head of the bay. In
the muddy waters of that basin they attain their highest
,nd coves, in
•^tervals, and
t is called a
.t high water,
leaves tliem
L herrings aro
red are very
twelve dozens
r largely into
of export of
ts habits, and
3ed upon this
aackerel were
3 Bello, where
■ has increased
of small size,
lie Gulf of St.
:er.
under family;
)d. This lish
33 much more,
'ten quite near
:r. The flesh,
nuscular fibre
; the flns and
:litiun. When
me, the fisher-
id smoke it for
le of the most
taken in long
kept stretched
5omo are taken
31 pal fishery is
[' the bay. '^^n
in their highest
J
p?
W
THE FISHERIES.
579
perfection, owing to the great abundance there oi their
favorite food, the shad-worm and the shrimp. The usual
weight of this fish is from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs., although it
Bometimes attains the weight of 6 lbs. For winter use the
shad is split down the back, and pickled ; it must be care-
fully cleaned and freed from blood or other impurities,
otherwise, from its exceeding fatness, it is apt to spoil.
Upwards of two hundred boats and fi^e hundred men are
employed in the shad fishery, every season, in Cumber-
land Basin ; their annual catch is estimated at something
more than 4,000 barrels, worth at least £5,000 sterling.
Besides the sca-tish above described, ther' are others
also taken, of less commercial value, which are usually
eaten fresh. Among these are the silver hake, a fish
resembling the whiting of Europe; the cunner, or sea-
perch ; the torsk, or cusk, which is sonietimes salted and
dried ; several varieties of flounder ; eols in great abund-
ance and of good quality, occasionally pickle-salted fjr
exportation ; the tom-cod, a small variety of the cod
family ; skate in abundance, and of large size, seldom
eaten, not being sufticiontly appreciated ; and that delicious
little fish, the smelt, which in spring is taken in immense
quiiiitities, and in great perfection.
i)i shell-jish, there are lobstei*s in considerable numbers;
large and i^mall clams ; a large flat shell-fish, known as the
scallop ; the periwinkle ; and great abundance of shrimps,
with which the market might be amply supplied, but for
the scarcity of shrimp-fishoi's, who might here follow their
vocation most profitably.
Tho islards of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and West
Isles, uvvn and employ in the fisheries sixty-eight vessels,
manned by 558 men ; 350 boats, manned by 900 men ;
besides 200 men employed in connection with the herring-
weirs. The settlers along the shores of the Bay of Fundy
all fish more or less in their o.vn boats, chiefly for their
own use. The value of their fishing cannot be stated with
any degree of precision.
37
»
i
II
1, '..j, ■
'W\m^
■K
1'-; rS
i'^~
Mf
.i
i
.'*.
4 .^
It
^•:f
^Htpf!
/ ■■_: ■
1
H ? «
580
THE FISHERIES.
The rivers which fall into the bay yield a variety of
fish ; but the most -valuable river fishing is in the harbor
of St. John, at the mouth of the St. John River, which
yields annually about 40,000 salmon, 12,000 to 16,000
barrels of alewives, and about 1,000 barrels of shad. The
salmon are large and fine, precisely similar to the salmon
of Europe. They are worth at St. John about jix-pence
sterling per pound, and are sent in ice, in large quantities,
to the United States, yielding a considerable profit, and
forming a valuable export. The alevOif<' is a small species
of shad, generally known in New Brunswick by the name
of gaspereau ; its length is from eight to ten inches, tol-
embly good when eaten fresh, early in spring, but very
dry when salted. It is exported in pickle to the Southern
States, where it is eaten by the slaves ; in that hot climate,
a tatter fish will not keep. Shad are takea in the river,
on the way to their spawning grounds, which are some
distance above tide-water. The river shad are much
inferior to those taken in the bay, or in Cumberland
Basin, and, when salted, are but little superior to the
gas])creau.
The fisheries in St. John harbor give employment to
two hundred boats and five hundred men ; their value is
estim.vted at £20,000 sterling annually.
The Gulf of Sr. Lawrenoe. — The fisheries in this
gulf are prosecuted only from April until the end of No-
vember, the ice preventing their being followed during
the rest of the year.
The princi])al fishery is for cod ; it commences early in
oune, and cont'nucs unl'llatein Novemoer. In the early
part of the season, cod are ii;al:en very near the shores ; as
the soasori adva^ices, they diH\v oflf Into deep water. The
best fisl'ing grounds, or, rather, those most frequented,
are from Point Escv'i.rinac to Miscou, and thenco along
the Bay of Ghaleur to the Restigouclu'.. The fishermen
go out in boats, from one to fifteen miles from the land,
in the morning, and v/hen at the longer distance do not
If i
^! ^
THE ri.siiEiii?:s.
581
I a variety of
in the harbor
River, wliich
000 to 16,000
of shad. The
to the sahnon
bout oix-pence
irge quantities,
,bl3 profit, and
a small species
;k by tlie name
ten inches, tol-
>ring, but very
to the Sonthern
lat liot climate,
ea in the river,
^hich are some
ihad arc nuich
in Cumberland
superior to the
employment to
I ; their value is
fisheries in this
1 the end of No-
followed during
iimences early in
2r. In the early
ir the shores ; as
loop water. Tlie
most fre<piented,
nd thence; along
Tiie fishermen
3s from the land,
I' distance do not
return until the evening of the second day. Their boats
are large, but not decided ; they have two fore-and-aft
sails and a jib. Each boat is managed by two men, and
there is frequently with them a boy. The fisVermen gen-
erally build their own boats during winter : the keel is
of birch ; the timbers of cedar ; and the planks of pine or
cedar. The boat has oars, an anchor and rope, compass,
and small oven for cooking; tlie cost is about £18 for
each boat and outfit. A boat will last from six to eight
years, and so will the sails also, with care.
It is considered a good day's fishing at Miscou, or
Shippagan, for one of these boats to take ten quintals of
fish, which they frequently do. When first caught, 112
of the small fish, and thirty of the large size, are reckoned
to the quintal. The fishermen generally split, salt, and
cure their own fish; when they do not, 252 lbs. of green
fisli, salted and drained, are given to a curer, who returns
a quintal, or 112 lbs. of merchantable dry fish.
The Bay of Chaleur cod are more prized in the markets
of the Mediterranean, and will at all times sell there more
readiW, and at higher prices than any other. They are
beautifully white, and being very dry, can better with-
stand the effxicts of a hot climate and long voyage than a
more moist fish. The peculia»'ity of their being smaller
than cod caught elsewhere, is also of gi-eat importance as
regards the South American market, for which they are
packed in tubs of a peculiar shape called " drums," and
into which they are closely pressed by means of a power-
ful screw.
Hake are taken abundantly in the gulf, at night, and
on muddy bottoms, as in the Bay of Fundy. But much
more attention is given to their cure, and they are ex-
ported under the name of " ling." Thu haddock abounds,
but the pollock are not found in the gulf, probably from
the absence of those rushing tides and foaming currents
in v;hich they so greatly delight. The torsk, or cusk, is
more common than in the Bay of Fundy, and is dry-cured
!iin
)S2
THE FISIIEUIES.
as a " scale-fish." Halibut are often taken. They are cut
in slices and pickled in barrels, in which state they sell at
half the price of the best herrinj^s.
Herrings arc taken everywhere on the gulf coast of
Xew Brunswick, around Miscou Island, and within the
Bay of Chaleur. Lnrnediatoly after the disappearance
of the ice, at the end of April or early in May, vast quan-
tities of herrings draw near the sliores to deposit their
spawn ; the fishing continues until about the first of
June, when, the spawning being concluded, the fish retire
to deep water. These "spring-herrings," as they are
termed, being taken in the very act of spawning, are thin
and poor ; of little value as an article of food, whether fresh
or salted. Othci' herrings appear on the coast about the
20tli August, and remain inshore for a month ; tliese are
called " fall-herrings." They are fat, and in good con-
dition, furnishing excellent food, and a valuable commod-
ity for export. It is admitted that, when first caught,
the "fall-herrings" are fully equal in every respect to the
best Scotch herrings ; and if they were cured in the same
manner, this fishery, from the increased price and de-
mand, would become one of the most valuable fisheries of
the gulf.
Mackerel abound in the gulf, and are the chief object
of pursuit with the numerous American fishing vessels
which annually resort to its waters. This fishery commen-
ces early in July, and continues until late in October. The
mackerel taken in the early part of the season are gener-
ally very poor; they improve in quality as the season
advances. Those taken latest are by far the best, being
large and fat, and in the finest condition. The mackerel
fishery, as such, can scarcely be said to be followed by
Kcw Brunswick fishermen. They take small quantities
only with hook and line, to servo as bait for cod ; and
a few are taken in nets along the coast by settlers, '^his
valuable and prolific, thorgh somewhat unc(3rtain fishery,
has as yet been turned to very little account by the people
TUE FISIIERItS.
683
of xTew Brunswick ; but, if properly understood, may be
prosecuted very extensively, and with much profit, for tlie
mackerel of the gulf bear a very high price, and are in
great demand in the United States.
In the spring, the alewife or gasperau enters all the
rivers which flow into the gulf, between Baie Verte and
Shippagan, and many thousands of barrels are taken
annually. The striped bass abounds all along the same
coast; while the quantities of smelts are perfectly pro-
digious. The sea-eels are uncommonly large and fat, and
many are salted fur exportation. The cunner, or sea-
perch", is large and fine in the gulf. Shad are not plenti-
ful, and those taken are thin and of sti^all size, greatly
inferior to those caught in the Bay of Fundy. The eape-
lin is a small migratory fish from four to seven inches in
length, not unlike the smelt. It is a very delicate fish,
and large shoals draw near the shores every season, at
places which are favorable for the deposit of their spawn.
Flounders are found everywhere in great abundance and
variety, as also the torn-cod and the skate ; there are also
other fishes of less value, among them the dog-fish, the
livers of which yield oil largely.
Salmon of the finest descri^jtion are taken in great
numbers along the shores of the gulf, and in the estuaries
of the rivers flowing into it. At the entrance of the Mi-
ramichi, more than 400,000 lbs. of fresh salmon have
been put up in a single season, in tin cases hermetically
sealed, fur export to the United Kingdom.
The shell-fish of the gulf consist of oysters, of excel-
lent quality ; lobsters, in exceeding abundance ; large and
small clams, in great quantities ; crabs, periwinkles,
Bhrinips, mussels, and razor-fish, are found everywhere, in
profusion.
River Fisheries. — The numerous rivers, lakes, and
streams, which so bountifully water New Brunswick, are
filled with fish of excellent quality, and in great va-
riety. Besides tlmeo fishes which enter from the sea, in-
-■ »i
inM^
W ■:-^. ■-
-'^t4^ijk|y||«| .
584
THE FISUERIK8.
eluding the salmon, the shad, the gasperean, the striped
bass, the smelt, the silver-eel, t^ie sea-trout, and the
sturgeon, there are others which remain constantly in
fresh water, and may be taken readily.
The finest of the fresh-water fishes is the red or brook
trout, which is found in nearly every lake and stream in
New Brunswick, up to three pounds in weight, and some-
times even larger, affording excellent sport to the angler,
and most delicious food. In the ccld waters of the large
and deep lakes the great gray trout is caught, up to
twelve pounds in weight, but these are not of so fine a flavor
as the brook trou*-. The striped bass passes much of its
time in fresh water ; it is a good fish for the table, and is
sometiines taken of the weight of twenty pounds and up-
wards. After the fishes of the salmon family, it is un-
questionably the most sporting fish in North America; its
flesh is firm, white, and well flavored. The small white
bass, commonly called the " white perch," is an excellent
fish ; it abounds in the St. John and its tributaries, but is
not found in the rivers flowing into the gulf. — The yellow
perch, the roach, the dace, the gudgeon, the carp, the
sucker, and the chub, are all found in the fresh waters of
New Brunswick ; as also the white fish, commonly called
the " gizzard fish," and spotted burbot, usually designated
" fiesh- water cusk," botli good in their season. Eels are
found everywhere, scarcely any piece of water being with
out them.
Sturgeon of large size ascend several of the principal
rivers for the purpose of spawning. They are sometimes
caught, but their flesh, being coarse and strong, is rarely
eaten, owing to the abundance of fishes of better quality.
The following is a statement of the official value, in
pounds sterling, of the fish exported from New Brunswick
during six years, distinguishing the several countries to
which the same were exported : —
GEOLOGY OF THE PKOVINCE.
585
the striped
it, and the
)ustantly in
■ed or brook
d stream in
, and sorne-
the angler,
of the large
ught, np to
) tine a flavor
mnch of its
table, and is
[lids and np-
ly, it is un-
America; its
! small white
i an excellent
itaries, but is
— The yellow
the carp, the
esh waters of
imonly called
lly designated
on. Eels are
er being with
the principal
ire sometimes
rong, is rarely
better quality,
cial value, in
ew Brunswick
I countries to
To what countries.
United Kinf!;dom
Nortli American Colonies.
West Indies
Other British Colonies . . .
United States
Foreign States
Totals,
1S50.
£
1,835
11,051
1,911
55
8,400
4,0G7
27,319
1851.
£
2,613
16,507
489
1,761
14,281
3,320
38,971
1852.
£
6,185
9,792
1,778
1,274
22,934
4,096
1853.
£
14,605
16,659
788
496
18,609
5,793
1854.
£
12,285
13,713
1,841
19,676
8,830
46,059 56,950 56,345 47,193
I860.
£
8,553
12,224
782
990
19.92!)
4,715
It is believed that this statement does not include the
value of much of the fresh fish which is sent to the United
States in ice, or of the larger quantities of fresh and half-
cured fish which go from the fishing grounds in coasting
and trading vessels, without being reported.
GEOLOGY OP THE PROVINCE.
So large a proportion of New Brunswick is now covered
with dense forest, and, as yet, has been so imperfectly ex-
plored, that no very precise description of the geological
formation of the country can be given. At*present it can
only be stated generally, that according to the information
hitherto obtained, New Brunswick consists mainly of cer-
tain rocks, which may be thus described :
1. The primary rocks of granite, gneiss, and mica slate,
which form a broad belt extending directly across the
province, near its centre, in a north-easterly direction.
This belt is a spur or branch of the great chain of Alle-
ghany mountains. It enters the province from the United
States above Woodstock, embracing Mars Hill, near the
Des Chutes river, and the range of hills known as the
Tobique mountains, all of which, however, are less than
2,000 feet in height, except one, which rises to the height
of 2,170 feet. At the western end, this belt of jiilly coun-
try is supposed to be forty miles wide ; it narrows gradually
in its north-easterly course, and the hills decrease in height,
until they finally disappear before reaching the Bay of
Chaleur, near Bathurst.
Another belt of similar rocks enters the province from
|,;.l"'
J^' i
t«-te >; 8 ail
;yi
I
580
GEOLOaV OF THE PROVINCE.
tlio westward, at the Clieputtiecticook Lakes and River
St. Cruix, and also pursues a north-easterly course to J>ull
Moose Hill, near the Bellisle in Kin<;'s (bounty, soon after
which it disappears on meeting the coal measures. The
Xere})is Hills are in this belt, which is narrower and less
elevated than that to the northward.
Both these belts of granitic rocks form anticlinal ridges,
against which the stratiiied masses lean, or they border
immense troughs containing the secondary and tertiary
formations. The regions they occupy are generally stony,
often rocky, and not susceptible of cultivation. In the less
rocky portions excellent soils are fre(]^uently found when
the loose stones are removed.
The trap rocks, which unAvidc felspar, basalt, 'porphyry,
green-stone trap, and others of a volcanic character, are
found largely in connection with these belts of primary
rocks, into which they send nunierous dikes, veins, and
intruding masses. A tract of trap rocks, associated with
granite and sienito, and froipiently passing into the true
granitic rock, extends from Chamcook, near St. Andrew's,
to the eastern extremity of the county of St. John. This
tract is on the average about ten miles in width, and about
ten miles distant from the northern shore of the Bay of
Fundy, with the north-easterly course of which it runs
nearly parallel. These traj) rocks occupy a largo space in
the counties of King's, St. John, and Charlotte ; the lofty
columnar basalt, of the island of Gran<l Ivlanan, is espe-
cially remarkable. They form in general a poor ami rugged
country, but do not necessarily indicate the pi-esenceof
unfertile soils, because they contain a large percentage of
lime. This chemical character eminently distinguishes
the trap from the granitic rocks ; and the soils formed from
each of these classes of rocks respectively, differ widely,
and require entirely different modes of treatment. When-
ever the trap rocks crumble, from the action of the weather
or other causes, as frequently happens, they form reddish
soils of much richness ; and when these soils are deep,
GKOLOGY OF THE PROVINCE.
587
they may bo })rofitably applied as covering to otLer soila
of an interior character.
2. The lower Silurian rocks, which form a broad belt
south of tlio Tobiqiie hills, running parallel with tlie
nortli-easterly course of that range, and sweepin<^ around
the western end of the coal measures. The slates of this
foruiation are composed of beds of clay that have been
gradually consolidated, in which there is iio lime. They
form soils of medium and inferior quality, which require
drainage and the free use of lime.
3. The upper Silurian rocks, which cover nearly the
whole northern portion of New Brunswick, from the To-
bique hills to the northern boundary of the province, at
the 4r8th parallel of North latitude, where this formation
is met by the lofty mountain ridges of Gaspe. The coun-
ties of Carleton, Victoria, and Restigouche, rest principally
on this formation, which furnishes a large portion of the
richest upland soil of New 1 "unswick. Among the upper
Silurian rocks of this region are beds of valuable lime
stone, frequently abounding in characteristic fossils. The
rocks themselves are generally slaty clays, more or less
hard, containing lime in considerable quantity as an in-
gredient, and crumbling down into soils of much richness,
and sometimes of great tenacity. These soils are of a
heavier character than those of the coal measures, and
intinitely more fertile.
The upper Silurian rocks are also found skirting the Bay
of Fuudy, forming a belt of unequal Avidth, from the Saint
Croix to Point Wolf, at the eastern extremity of St. John
county. The southern part of Charlotte, and, nearly the
whole of St. John county, are in this formation. The rocks
of this district have been heretofore classed as lower Silu-
rian ; but the better opinion seems to be that they belong
^ 'le upper Silurian, and have been greatly changed by
•gueous action. This opinion is sustained by the presence
of large beds of limestone, which especially distinguish
this district ; and by the presence of fossils in the slates
11
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23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, NY. 14580
(716) 872-4503
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588
GhOLOGY OF THE PROVINCE.
i'J-li'
which are less metamorphosed. They are not altogether
incapable of yielding good soils; but this portion of the
province is, for the most part, covered with soils of an
i^iforior character.
4. The lower carboniferous rocks, or red sandstone,
which form a narrow belt everywhere between the Silurian
rocks and those of the coal measures. Tliey are also found
extensively iuWestmoriand, Albert, King's, Queen's, Carle-
ton, and Gloucester ; with small patclies iu St. John and
Cliarlotte counties. In these sandotones, which are sit-
uated beneath the coal measures, large deposits of gypsum
are found, and salt springs often occur. This formation
consists cliieily of rod conglomerate, fine-grained red sand-
stone, and beds of red clav. The conglomerate does not
produce so good a soil as the line-grained red sandstone,
whifth crumbles into red and sandy soils, light and easy to
work, often fertile, and under proper management yielding
good crops. The beds of red clay, often called red marl,
are interstratitied with beds of red sandstone, and crumble
down into soils which vary from a fine red loam to a rich
red clay. In the neighborhood of lime, these sandstones
.•ire themselves rich in lime; and when associated with
gypsum, combine to form some of the most generally use-
ful, and, when properly drained, some of the most valuable
upland soils in the province.
5. The carhoniferoua rocks, or coal measures, which
cover a large proportion of the breadth of New Bruns-
wick, consist chietly of gray sandstones of various i^ints,
but sometimes of a dark and greenish hue, and at others
of a pale yellow color. The district occupied by these
coal measures, extends along the whole gulf shore of this
province, from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Bale
Verte, nearly to Bathurst on the Bay of Chaleur, without
interruption. It constitutes a large part of the counties
of Gloucester and Northumberland; the whole of Kent;
the most considerable portions of Westmorland, Queen s,
and Suubury ; and extends also into Albert, King's, and
GEOLOGY OF THE PROVINCE.
589
; altogether
rtion of tlie
soils of an
sandstone,
the Silurian
3 also found
ecu's, Carle-
it. John and
ich are sit-
;8 of gyps""^
is formation
ed red sand-
ate does not
i sandstone,
, and easy to
lent yielding
ed red marl,
and erunible
am to a rieh
e sandstones
oeiated with
;enerally use-
nost vahiable
.surcs, which
New Bruus-
v^arious tints,
and at otliers
ied by these
shore of this
)tia, at Baie
deur, without
the couuties
lole of Kent ;
and. Queen 8,
:, King's, and
York counties. This coal measure district is d stiniruislied
by the general flatness of its surface, gently undulating,
however, intersected by numerous rivers and several large
lakes, but consisting principally of table lands, more or
less elevated, over which forests of mixed g owth extend
in every direction. The sandstones of this formation con-
sist principally of silicious matter, cemented together by
a small proportion of clay, chiefly decayed felspar; they
crumble readily, form light soils, pale in color and easily
worked, retaining little water, ploughed with facility early
in spring and late in autumn, but needing much manure,
and subject to being parched up in hot and dry sunnnei-s.
Some of i,hese sandstones, however, contain grciiter pro-
portions of clay, and form stifi*er soils; others, that are
green or gray internally, weather of a red color, and form
reddish soils of good quality.
It has been remarked, that the coal measures of New
Brunswi(!k contain a smaller variety of sandstones than
those of England and Scotland, and are free froin those
thick beds of dark-colored shale which occur in the coal-
measures of the United Kingdom. The soils there, lying
above the richest coal-fields, £■■ e often miserably poor, and
greatly inferior to those furiiished by the carboniferous
rocks of New Brunswick.
6. The tertiary deposits, which are found at nuineroua
localities along the coast of the Bay of Fundy. These
consist of beds of sand, marly clay, and marl, forming low
and nearly level tracts, exposed to the sea, and frequently
extending; some distance from the shores. In the nuirl
aud marly clay of this formation, the remains of marine
animals and plants are found in profusion. In the coun-
ties of Gloucester and Restigouche, on the coast of the
Bay Chaleur, these are similar to animals and plants which
still exist in the province, and the marls of that district
may therefore be referred to the pliocene period of the
upper tertiary formation.
There are two kinds of alluvium in the province, the
i fi
w
'^'if
»
590
MINES, MINEKALS, AND QUARRIES.
fresh-water and the marine, botli exceedingly fertile. The
first of these, eompo^;ed of tlie particles of rocks detached
by the frost, heat, and moisture, which cause rapid disin-
tegration, are carried downward by the rains, and trans-
ported by the floods in early spring along the valleys and
river sides, where, being deposited, they form the fertile
intervales that border nearly every river in New Bruns-
wick. The marine alluvia are carried inwards by the
rapid tides of the Bay of Fundy, and spread along its
estuaries, where, in the course of time, they become grass-
bearing marshes, and being rescued from the sea by
embankments, finally produce clover and wheat. These
" diked marshes," as they are termed, possess extraordinary
and enduring fertility, and exist extensively in the coun-
ties of Westmorland and Albert, near the head of the
Bay of Fundy, where the tides rise to the height of fifty
feet and upwards.
For information under this head the writer is indebted
to the labors of Dr. Gesner, Dr. Kobb, Professor Johnston,
and Mr. Logan of Canada, in addition to his own observa-
tions in every part of New Brunswick.
MINES, litlNERALS AND QUARRIES.
As the geological character of New Brunswick can as
yet be but imperfectly described, its minerals, at the pres-
ent, are thereture only partially known. The principal
mineral substances hitherto found in the province are as
follows : —
1. Bituminous coal, of good quality, found in numerous
localities in the coal measures of the province, of the fat
and caking description, like the Newcastle coal of England.
No seam of this coal thicker than twenty-one inches has
yet been discovered. Tiie principal workings are in the
vicinity of Grand Lake, Queen's county, and the seam
is found, on the average, at about twenty feet below the
surface. In 1851, nine hundred and forty tons were raised.
2. A highly bituminous mineral, found near the Petico-
fertile. The
ks detached
} rapid disin-
5, and trans-
} valleys and
in the fertile
New Bruns-
^ards by the
;ad along its
)ecome grass-
i the sea by
'heat. These
extraordinary
y in the coun-
. head of the
leight of fifty
;er is indebted
3Sor Johnston,
own observa-
nswick can as
Is, at the pres-
Thc principal
ovinco are as
d in numerous
nee, of the tat
al of England,
one inches has
ngs are in the
and the seam
feet below the
ns were raised,
ear the Petico-
MINE3, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES.
691
diac river, in Albert county. A scientific dispute has
arisen as to the precise character of this mineral, which
one party designates asphalte, and the other j}iteh coal;
hence it lias been proposed to establish it as a new mineral,
under the name of alhertite. It is valuable for making
the best illuminating gas, and also for the manufacture of
various liquid hydro-carbons and illuminating and lubri-
cating oils, which are distilled from it. The seam at pres-
ent worked is vertical, and on the average about six feet
wide. The deposit is supposed to be extensive. In 1851,
fifteen hundred tons were raised.
3. Iron ores, of various descriptions and qualities, are
foimd in almost every section of New Brunswick. An
inexhaustible bed of hematite has been found at Wood-
stock, near the river St. John ; extensive iron-works liave
been constructed there, and in 1851, eight hundred and
ten tons were smelted. No other iron-works have yet
been established in the province, although rich ores exist
abundantly, especially in King's and Queen's counties.
4. Various ores of manganese have been found in con-
nection with the iron ore of "Woodstock. Gray oxide of
manganese, highly crystallized and of fine quality, has
been worked to some extent on the Tattagouche river,
near Bathurst, and thence shipped to England. Black
oxide of manganese has been found near Quaco, and of
this considerable quantities have, at different periods, been
shipped to the United States.
5. Plumbago {graphite) exists in one of the largest beds
known in America, at the falls near the city of St. John.
It approaches in some degree to a metamorphosed coal,
hut is still sufficiently pure for the manufacture of lustre,
and preparation of moulds for iron castings. It has been
worked to some extent ; in 1853, eighty-nine thousand
nine hundred and thirty-six pounds were exported.
6. Ores of lead {galena) have been found on the island
of Campo Bello ; also at Norton, in King's county, and
lately on the banks of the river Tobique, of very good
m\
■ I pi:
592
MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES.
quality. Tlio extent of the deposit, at the several places
iiieiitioued, has not yet been ascertained.
7. Gray sulphnret of copper has been found in small
quantities on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, in Charlotte
county. It has also been found on the left bank of the
river liepisiguit, near Bathurst, and a company was
formed some years since to work the deposit ; but the
irregular distribution of the mineral rendered their opera-
tions uncertain, and the mine has been abandoned.
8. Granite, of the best description, is found on the right
bank of the Saint John, above the Long Reach, in King's
comity. Quarries were opened there some years sincfe,
and many public and private buildings in the city of St.
John are built wholly, or in part, of the granite quarried
there. Although it exists largely in other portions of the
province, no other quarries have yet been worked.
9. Gypsum exists In abundance at Hillsborough, about
four miles from the Peticodiac river, to which it is trans-
portetl on a tramway, and thence shipped in large quanti-
ties to the United States. It is also found extensively at
Martin's Head, in St. John county; at Sussex Yale, in
King's county ; and near the river Tobique, in Victoria
county. There is also a deposit neai Cape Meranguin, in
AYestmorland. A snow-white gypsum, compact, translu-
cent, and approaching the finest alabaster, is likewise
found at Hillsborough, in considerable quantity. It
works readily in the lathe, and makes beautiful ornament
The quantity of gypsum quarried in 1851 was 5,465 tons.
In 1853, no less than 15,712 tons were exported.
10. Limestones are found in various districts, but are
princi[)ally burned for quick-lime, in large quantities, near
the city of St. John, at L'Etang, in Charlotte county, and
at Petit Rocher, on the Bay of Chaleur. Kilns exist at
other places, where quick-lime is burnt on a small scale,
for local consumption. Hydraulic limestones have been
noticed in many localities. The old mountain limestone,
abounding with fossils, is found near the Ocnab'^g lake,
ral places
I in small
Charlotte
ink of the
ipany was
; but the
:heir opera-
ned.
)n the right
11, in King's
years sincb,
3 city of St.
lite quarried
rtions of the
rked.
rough, about
di it is trans-
large quanti-
xtensively at
ssexYale, in
e, in Victoria
Jleranguin, in
pact, translu-
r, is likewise
piantity. It
'ul ornament
MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES.
593
In Queen's county, in its usual position with reference to
the coal measures ; the whole thickness of the band does
not, liowever, exceed one thousand feet. Magnesian
limestone has been noticed near the coal mines at Sahuon
river, in Queen's county. In 1851, the quantity of lime
burned was 35,599 casks, of five bushels eacli.
11. Marbles of very fair quality are worked in the
vicinity of St. John, and are also found near Musquadi, on
the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the coast
of the Bay of Chaleur.
12. Superior dark-red sandstones, as also gray and
other sandstones, are quarried at Mary's Point and Grind-
stone Island, in Albert county, and thence exported to
some extent. Tliese sandstones are found in large blocks,
n.nd are prized for building purposes. Excellent blue
flagstones are likewise found at Grindstone Island. Good
sandstones for buildings are found on the banks of the
Miramichi, as well as in numerous otlier parts of the coal
measures.
13. Grindstones are manufactured to a very consider-
able extent in the counties of Albert and Westmorland, as
also at Miramichi, and on the coast of the Bay of Chaleur,
at New Bandon and Caraquet. They form an export of
mucli value. There were 68,949 grindstones made in 1851.
14. Fine oil-stone (.lovaculite), equal to Turkish, is
fou- I at Cameron's Cove, near the northern head ot
Grand Manan, whence American citizens carry it off in
quantities. Excellent blue whetstone has been worked to
some extent near the Sevogle, a tributary to the North-
West Miramichi. Fine stone of the like description is
also procured from the banks of the Moose Horn brook,
in King's county.
15. Double refracting or Iceland spar, of the best de-
scription for optical purposes, is found at Belledune, in
the county of Kestigoucho.
16. Roofing slate {anjUlaceous elate) of good quality is
found on the banks of the Tattagouche, near Bathurst,
iiii 7^ f7
J'Sl
m
„ I.^J
it
I :^ -
)94
IINE8, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES.
and the roof of the court-house at that phice is covered
with it. Simihir slate has heen observed at the narrows oi
the Tobique river, and on the left bankoftlie St. John,
about three miles above Green river, in Madawaska.
17. Iron pyrites, or Hulphuret of iron^ abounds in New
Brunswick, and may be used in the manufacture of cop-
peras when it occurs in veins. Where dikes of trap-rock
liave been injected into slate, the latter is often found
char<j;ed with pyrites ; and this pyritiferous slate is an
article of much economical value, as, by a very simple
process, it may be made to produce both copperas and alum.
18. Bitxtminous shale, a variety of ai'(jlllae''ous slate, is
found in abundance on the banks of the Memramcook
river, near Dorchester, in Westmorland — and throuirhont
a large district in that vicinity. This shale is hi«^hly
charged with bitumen ; and from it naphtha is distilled, as
also a new liquid hydro-carbon which has been designat-
ed kerosene. Atmospheric air, after being passed through
this liquid, becomes a powerful illuminating gas. Amin-
er.'il oil is also obtained by distillation fi'om this shale,
and from \tparafine is made, a valuable substance for lu-
bricating machinery. Li<piid bitumen, or naphtha in its
natural state, is found in small quantities tlowing from
this shale, in several places.
19. Plastic clay, for bricks and pottery, exists in large
beds in many districts, and is often found of very line
quality. Beds of fire-clay are found beneath the bitumi-
nous coal wherever it exists in New Bninswick. A large
outcrop of this valuable clay has been observed at tho
mouth of the Salmon River, near the head of the Grand
Lake, in Queen's county.
20. Peat, of good quality for fuel, exists in large tracts,
especially in the counties of Kent, Queen's, and Sun-
bury. There are two extensive deposits, washed by tho
sea, on the shores of the Bay of Miramichi — the one at
the Black Lands, near Tabusintac ; and tlie other on tho
opposite side of the bay, at Point Escuminac.
ce is covered
the narrows ot
:,he St. John,
hiwaska.
)muls in New
acture of cop-
s of trap-rock
is often found
■ous shite is an
a, very simple
)eras and ahnn.
lue-'oxis shate, is
Mouiramcook
lul throii<jliont
lale is higlily
la is distilled, as
been designat-
passed through
i!^ gas. A min-
froni this shale,
ubstance for lu-
)r naphtha in its
es flowing from
■, exists in largo
jid of very line
jath the bitutni-
swick. A large
)bservod at the
id of the Grand
1 in large tracts,
leen's, and Sun-
washed by the
chi — the one at
lie other on tho
nac.
1^
4mM
SlB^^HH
; I^HB
i an^^^H
Lilwl
MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES.
21. Sulphate of barjtes has been found north of Fort
Howe, near the city of St. John, and is said to exist in
other localities.
22. Felspar, in large crystals, has i)een frequently soon
in those granitic rocks Avhich intersect gneiss. When
pure, this mineral is admirably adapted for the manufac-
ture of fine porcelain.
23. Milk-Avhite quariz, in veins and beds more or less
extensive, cocurs in numerous localities. This substance
may be profitably employed in th-^/ manufacture of flint
glass. Quartz crystals, both liip.p.d and smoky, are
found in numy ]>laces. The finest pure crystals have been
procured near the Musquash river, in the count; of St.
John.
24. Ochres and the ochreous earths are found, in beds
of considerable thickness, in the sandstones of the coal
measures. From some of the ochres, of a ferruginous
character, fire-proof paints have been manufactured, at
the Scadouc river, near Shediac, in Westmorland.
25. Chlorite, the famous pipe-stone of the Indians, called
by them Tomaganops, is procured at Grand Manan, and
also at the Tomaganops brook, a tributary of the Xorth-
West Miramichi, in Northumberland. When first procured
from its native bed it is of a dark-green color, compact,
soft, and easily worked; by the moderate action of firC; it
becomes very black and quite hard.
26. Jade {nephriie\ a stone remarkable for its hard-
ness and tenacity, of a light-green color, and of an oily
appearance when polished, is found in the province, in
localities known to the Indians. Some of them possess
ancient scalping-knives and other weapons of jade, neatly
polished, and bearing a fine cutting edge.
27. Jasper is found along the shores of the Bay of Cha-
leur, and other localities in the northern part of the prov-
ince. The ancient arrow-heads, spear-heads, and other
Indian implements of stone, for use in war or the chaae,
were chiefly formed of native blood -red jasper, exceeding
88
•I', !
I f. ;
mV' iW'
!PHi
■-:'r
696
MINES, MINKKAI.S, AND QUAURIK8.
ly fine and hard, oftentimes emulating the appearance of
the semipellucid gems.
28. Ilornstone, or chert^ is frequentl}'- found in the
primary rocks, and has been especially noticed at Grand
Manan and the Gannet Rock. It has been seen of various
colors, and somewhat translucent. The Indians formerly
used chert for the heads of their spears and arrows, al-
though these were sometimes formed of white quartz.
29. Soapstoue {steatite) is found in the northern part of
the province by the Indians. Cooking pots, and other
utensils ofsoapstone, are often found near their ancient
camping-grounds.
30. Salt-springs, affording a copious supply of water,
exist at Sussex Vale, from which salt has been manufac-
tured for many years, by evaporation in boiling. This
salt is peculiarly fine, and is supposed to improve the
flavor of the excellent butter made in that valley. Salt-
spVings are also found along a small tributary of the Ham-
mond river, in King's county, and near the river Tobique,
in Victoria.
The origin of these springs is yet an unsettled question;
and whether they arise from some unknown chemical
action in the bowels of the earth, or are produced by the
solution of beds of rock-salt, remains to be determined.
31. Sulphureous and ferruginous springs, und those
emitting carburetted hydrogen, are found in numerous
localities, in the coal measures and siates of the province ;
but as none of their waters have yet been analyzed, no
precise description can be given of their several qualities.
Very many of the various minerals above described
have been observed by the writer, in the localities men-
tioned ; and there is reason to believe that others will be
found as the country becomes cleared and more minutely
explored.
In addition to the minerals already mentioned. Dr. Ges-
ner states, that Talc and Talcose Slate, Mica Slate,
Thompsonite, Stilbite, -^.pophyllite, Tourmaline, Serpen-
ppcarance of
found in the
p.ed at Grand
^eenof various
ians formerly
[id arrows, al-
te quartz.
)rtliern part of
ots, and other
r their ancient
pply of water,
been nianufac-
boilinj;. This
0 improve the
, valley. Salt-
u-y of the Ilam-
3 river Tobique,
ettled question;
:nown chemical
>roduccd by the
determined.
ings, und those
id in numerous
of the province;
;cn analyzed, no
everal (pialities.
above described
localities men-
at others will be
more minutely
ntioncd. Dr. Ges-
ate, Mica Slate,
maline, Serpen-
SUII'-nUILDINO.
597
tme, Iserino, Asbestos, Amethysts, Agates, and Garnets,
exist in New Brunswick, but he does not indicate their
several localities.
SHIP-BUILDING.
The advantages of New Brunswick for ship-building
were apparent to its earliest settlers. Jonathan Leavitt,
one of the lirst settlers in the harbor of St. John, built
a small schooner there before 1770. This vessel was nained
the "Monneguash," that being the Indian name of the
rocky peninsula on which the eastern part of the city of
St. John now stands. In 1773, a large schooner was built
at Miramichi, and named the " Miramichi," by William
Davidson, the first British settler on that river. From
these two schooners the province dates its ship-building,
which ma}' be said to have grown up with it, gradually
increasing until it has attained its present extent and value.
The forests of New Brunswick supply timber of large
gize, in any quaiitity, for building ships of the first cla,'s.
Such ships are principally built of black birch and larch,
or hackmatack. The black birch is used for the keel, floor
timbers, and lower planking ; larch or hackmatack for all the
other timbers, knees, and upper planking. American live
and white oak are imported for the stems and posts of su-
perior ships, and pitch pine for beams. White pine is used
for the cabins and interior finishing, and for masts. The
black spruce furnishes as fine yards and topinasts as any in
the world. Elm, beech, maple, cedar, and spruce, are used
in the construction of ships of the second class, and for
Bmall vessels.
Ship-building is prosecuted more extensively than else
where at the ports of St. John and Miramichi, where it
first commenced. Vessels are also built at St. Andrew's ;
at various coves and harbors on the Bay of Fundy, es-
pecially at Teignmouth and Quaco ; along the banks of
the river St. John, for ninety miles from the sea, on the
Kennebeckacis, one of its tributaries, and at the Grand
Lake. Latterly, ship-building has been prosecuted to a
%
%hK-
I - 'i
fm
Tv r}
598
SHIP-BUILDING.
considerable extent on the banks of the Peticodiac river,
and at Sackville, in Cumberland Basin. Within the
Gulf of St, Lawrence, vessels have been chiefly built hith-
erto at Shemogue, Cocagne, Buctouche, Richibucto, Kou
chibouguae, Miramichi, and Shippagan ; at Bathurst and
at Dalhousie, withiii the Bay of Chaleur ; and at Cambelton
OL the Restigouchc.
One of Lloyd's surveyors now resides in 'New Bruns-
wick, and all large vessels are subjected to his strict and
careful supervision while in course of construction. Sliips
built under his inspection are classed before they go to
sea ; and such ships have justly attained a high character.
The "Marco Polo," renowned for her sailing qualities, was
built in the harbor of St. John, and has been followed by
a fleet of other ships, equally famous for their strength,
speed, and durability.
The following is a return of the new vessels registered
in the province of New Brunswick, and their tonnage, in
each year from the year 1825 to the year 1860, both years
inclusive, including vessels built for owners in the United
Kingdom, and sent home under certificate or governor's
pass.
Year.
1825.
1826.
1827.
1828.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
hS35.
183G.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
No. of vessels. Tons.
120 28,893
130 31,620
99 21,806
71 15,656
G4 8,450
62 9,242
61 8,571
70 14,081
97 17,837
92 24,140
97 25,796
100 29,643
99 27,288
122 29,167
164 45,864
...168 64,104
119 47,140
87 22,840
Tear. No. of vessels. Tons.
1843... 64 14,550
1844 87 24.543
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857,
1858.
1859.
1860.
. 92 28.972
.124 40,383
.115 53,373
. 86 22,793
,119 39,280
. 86 30,356
, 99 49,505
.118 58,399
.122 71,428
,135 99,426
. 95 54,561
.129 79,907
.148 71,989
. 75 26,263
. 93 38,330
.100 41,003
The vessels built in 1853, it will be observed, were of
codiac river,
Within tho
ly built hith-
hibucto, Kou
Bathurst and
at Cambelton
New Bruns-
lis strict and
ction. Ships
'e they go to
iffh character,
qualities, was
II followed by
leir strength,
jels registered
ir tonnage, in
60, botli years
in the United
or governor's
f vesselB. Ton*.
64 14,550
87 24,543
92 28.972
124 40,383
115 53,373
86 22,793
119 39,280
86 30,356
99 49,595
118 58,399
122 71,428
135 99,426
95 54,561
129 79,907
,148 71,989
, 75 26,263
, 93 38,330
.100 41,003
served, were of
MILLS AND MANUFACTOEIES.
699
large size, averaging no less than 585 tons each. The
proportions in which they were built in different parts of
the province, in 1854, may be judged by the following
statement from the ports of registry :— St. John, 94 vessels,
66,452 tons; Miramichi, 21 vessels, 13,205 tons; St.
Andrews, T vessels, 1,771 tons. The vessels registered at
Miramichi include all those built in the guU"; and those
retjistered at St. Andrews include all that were built in
Charlotte county.
At an average of eight pounds sterling per ton, the
vessels ^uilt in 1854 were worth £795,408 sterlinar. As
fully half the cost of each ship is expended in labor, the
value of employment afforded by ship-building in New
Brunswick may be readily estimated. The amount of
daily labor in and abou». the hull and spars of a ship, is,
on the average, ten days for each registered ton.
The shipping belonging to the province of New Bruns-
wick on the 31st December of each year, from 1854 to
1860, respectively, is shown in the following table :
Tear.
1854..,
1855...
1856..,
1837..,
1858..,
1859..,
I860..,
No.
,582
.500
.583
.543
.497
.489
.492
John.
Tons.
19,695.
10,4,-)1.
:i.3,7i;?.
;i;i,G69.
14,457.
12,420.
23,125.
Miramichi.
No. Tons.
.103 10,063.,
.105 13,209.,
.110 1(),031.,
.126 18,3G3. ,
.119 14,9'J3.,
.126 13,556.,
.132 14,910.,
S.iint Andrews.
No. Tons.
..193 11,696.,
..195 12,572.,
12,462.
8,476.,
9,713.,
8,079.,
8,748.,
.197
.188
.190
.190
.201
TotaL
No. Tonat
..878 141,454
..806 138,292
..892 104,220
..857 160,508
..812 139,095
..811 134,055
..825 147,083
MILLS AND MANUFACTORIES.
The number of saw-mills has increased very much in
New Brunswick of late years; and recently they have
been greatly improved in their construction and machinery.
Water power is still used very extensively ; but the number
of mills worked by steam is becoming large, especially at
and near tiie various sea-ports. In 1833, the number of
saw-nulls in the province was estimated at two hundred
and thirty ; by the census of 1851, it appears that the
number of saw-milla had then increased to five hundred
IT?.
^ Dili'
1 1
1 1
600
INTEBNAL COMMUNICATION.
and eighty-four — giving employment to 4,302 men. Many
saw-mills on a large scale liave since been erected.
By the census of 1851, it also appears that there were
then in the province, 261 grist-mills, employing 36G men ;
125 tanneries, employing 255 men ; 11 foundries, employ-
ing 212 men ; 52 carding and weaving establishments,
employing 96 persons : and that there were also 5,475
hand-looms, at which 622,237 yards of cloth were made
in a year; this was chiefly coarse woollen, for farmers'
use. There were eight breweries, manufacturi.)g annually
100,975 gallons of malt liquor ; and 94 other manufactur-
ing establishments, giving employment to 953 persons.
The value of various articles manufactured in the prov-
ince in 1851, is thus stated : — boots and shoes, £89,367 ;
leather, £45,162 ; candles, £19,860 ; wooden ware (not
cabinet-work), £20,505 ; chairs and cabinet-ware, £13,472;
soap, £18,562 ; hats, £6,360 ; iron castings, £20,205.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.
The rivers of New Brunswick and their tributaries aro
GO large, and aftbrd such facilities for reaching the interior
of the country, that for a long period after its first settle-
ment the construction of roads was greatly neglected.
The principal river is the St. John, which is 450 miles
in length. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, and
steamers of large class, for eighty-four miles from the sea,
up to Fredericton, the seat of government. Above Fred-
ericton, small steamea's ply to Woodstock, about seventy
miles further up the river ; when the water is high, they
make occasional trips to the Tobique, a further distance
of fifty miles ; and sometimes they reach the Grand Falls,
which are about two hundred and twenty miles from the
sea. Above these falls the river has bc?n navigated by a
steamer about forty miles, to the mouth of the Madawaska;
beyond that point the St. John is navigable for boats and
canoes almost to its source. The Madawaska river is also
navigable for small steamers thirty miles, up to Lake
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.
601
Teraiscouata, a sheet of water twenty e»even miles long,
from two to six miles in width, and of great depth.
From the upper end of this lake to the river St. Law-
rence, at Trois Pistoles, the distance is about eighteen
miles only.
Another large sheet of water in connection with the St,
John, is the Grand Lake, the entrance to Avliich is about
fifty miles from the sea. This lake is about twenty nine
miles long, and from two to seven miles in width. The
Salmon river enters the Grand Lake near its head, and is
navigable for small vessels and steamers for sixteen miles.
The Maquapit and French Lakes are connected with the
Grand Lake by a deep, narrow channel, through which
small vessels can pass.
The Washademoak Lake is about twenty miles long,
and, on the average, three-quarters of a mile in width.
The stream from it enters the St. John about forty miles
from the sea. This lake is navigable for steamers to the
mouth of the New Canaan river, which flows in at its
head.
The Kennebecasis river, a large tributary of the St.
John, is eighty miles long ; it is navigable for steamers
twenty -five miles from its mouth to Hampton, where ves-
sels of 500 tons have been built. The Oromocto is another
large tributary flowing from two large lakes, navigable for
vessels drawing eight feet of water for twenty miles from
its mouth. It enters the St. John from the westward,
seventy-two miles from the sea ; within its mouth vessels
of 1,200 tons are built. The Nashwaak, the Keswick, the
Mactaquack, and the Nackawic are all considerable streams,
entering the St. John from the eastward. The Tobiquo
is a large river, eighty miles in length, with its tributaries
watering a large tract of country east of the St. John
There are many other tributaries of the St. John both
from the eastward and *he westward, among which the
A.roostook is the most considerable.
The Peticodiac is a large river flowing into Cumber*
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602
INTERNAL OOMMUNICATION.
land Basin, near the head of the Bay of Fundy. It is
navigable twenty-five miles for vessels of the largest size ;
and for schooners of sixty or eighty tons burden for twelve
miles further, to the head of the tide. The whole length
of this rivgr is about one hundred miles ; above the head
tide-water it is navigable for boats and canoes fully fifty
miles.
The Richibucte is a considerable river flowing into the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is navigable for small vessels
for fifteen miles above the harbor at its mouth ; the tide
flows up it twenty -five miles.
The Miramichi is a large river, navigable for vessels of
800 tons for twenty-five miles from the gulf, and for
schooners twenty miles further, to the head of the tide,
above which for sixty miles it is navigable for tow-boats.
This river has many large tributaries spreading over a great
extent of country.
The Restigouche, at the north-eastern extremity of the
province, is a noble river, three miles wide at its entrance
into the Bay of Chaleur, and navigable for large vessels
for eighteen miles from the bay. The principal stream of
the Restigouche, is over two hundred miles in length. Its
Indian name signifies " the river which divides like the
hand," — in allusion to its separation, above the tide, into
five large streams. The main river, and its large tribu-
taries, widely spread, are supposed to drain at least 4,000
square miles of territory, abounding in timber and other
valuable natural resources.
The Bay of Chaleur, into which the Restigouche flows,
may be described as one innnense haven, with many excel-
lent harbors. Its length is ninety miles, and it varies in
breadth from fifteen to thirty miles ; yet in all this great
extent of length and breadth, there is neither rock, reef,
nor shoal, nor any impediment to navigation. On the
southern or New Brunswick side of this bay the shores
are low, the water deepening gradually from them. On
the northern or Canadian side, the shores are bold and
itli; the tide
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.
603
precipitous, rising into eminences which may almost be
called mountains.
Besides the rivers mentioned, there are very many
others, of such size as would entitle them elsewhere to bo
deemed very considerable. An inspection of the map of
New Brunswick will show how admirably the country is
watered throughout, no portion of it being without run-
ning streams, " from the smallest brook up to the navi-
gable river," by which the country can everywhere be
penetrated, as mentioned by the railway commissioners.
Gkeat Roads have been made through those lines of
country most thickly settle'd. Tlie principal of these is
the line of great road from the harbor of St. John, up the
valley of the St. John river to Canada. The next is the
line of great road, from the United States frontier, at Ca-
lais, across the province, eastwardly, to the city of St.
John ; thence eastwardly, along the valleys af the Ken-
nebecasis and Peticodiac, to the bend of the latter river.
At that point, a branch diverge j southerly to the bound-
ary of Nova Scotia ; the main line pursues its course to
Sliediac, and thence northerly, along the Gulf Shore of the
province, to the Canadian boundary at the Kest'gouche.
There are also great roads that connect Fredericton with
the ports of St. Andrew's and Miramichi ; with other great
roads of less extent connecting several important points.
The by-roads In each county are numerous, penetrating
into every settlement; these are being extended continually,
as settlers push their way into the wilderness. About
£30,000 sterling is appropriated annually from the pro-
vincial revenue, for the construction and improvement of
roads and bridges. A wire suspension bridge has recently
been thrown over the river St. John, situated near the
city of St. John, where a toll is levied ; with that single
exception, all the roads and bridges in the province are
free.
There are numerous waterfalls on the rivers and streams
of the province ; very few are without, and some have
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604
EAILWAY8.
falls of great height and large volume. Tlie amount of
water power in New Brunswick is exceedingly large, and
almost beyond calculation. Few countries of its size pos-
sess such facilities for obtaining power to an unlimited
extent from running water.
RAILWAYS.
The province was early in the field of railway enterprise.
It was only in the year 1825 that the Darlington railroad was
opened to supply London with coal. The cars moved by steam
at the rate of seven miles per hour, which was considered a
marvel then. Inl827, three miles of railway were completed
in the state of Massachusetts. In 1828, twelve miles of the
Baltimore and Ohio railroad were completed. In 1830, the
Liverpool and Manchester railroad, thirty-one miles in
length, was opened. It was the opening and successful work-
ing of this important line that gave the first grand impulse
to railway enterprise. In 1844, only fourteen years after
this great era in the means of travel and transit, the St.
Andrew's and Woodstock railroad, in New Brunswick was
commenced. The length of the line to Woodstock, is
about ninety miles. Its progress has been slow, partly
owing to the depression which occurred in the timber
trade shortly after its commencement, partly owing to in-
efficient management, and partly owing to the fact that the
provincial energies were directed to the construction of
other important lines of railway. In 1855, twenty-five
miles of <^his road were completed. The company have a
grant of one hundred thousand acres of land from the
provincial government, ten thousand acres of which they
have made over to the contractors at $5 per acre, in part
payment for their contract. This road is just announced
as being opened all the way to Woodstock station this
month (June, 1862). Its cost per mile has been something
near $16,000. It was originally intended to extend it to-
«vard Quebec, so as to tap the great Canadian lines. In
all probability it will be extended in the course of a few
k'I^ihS^
frl
imount of
large, and
Ds size po9-
unlimited
enterprise,
ailroadwas
ed by steam
onsidered a
} completed
miles of the
[n 1830, the
lie miles in
essful work-
md impulse
years after
^nsit, the St.
answick was
oodstock, is
slow, partly
the timber
owing to in-
tact that the
struction of
twenty-five
ipany have a
nd from the
f which they
acre, in part
Bt announced
: station this
en something
extend it to-
an lines. In
lurse of a few
ELEOTEIO TELEGRAPH LINES. 605
years so as to tap the Intercolonial Line which is to be
constructed forthwith.
The line of railway between the city of St. John's on
the Bay of Fundy and Shediac, a town on the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, is the chief line in this province. It has
been in successful operation for over two years. This road
is one hundred and eight miles in length. The whole line
with its full complements of stations, sidings, and rolling
stock, has cost the province, up to November 1st, 1861,
the sum of §4,548,564.59, or $42,116.34 per mile, equal to
£8,774 4:S. Id. sterling per mile.
The road is of superior quality, well-built, well-drained,
well-ballasted, with wider cuttings and embankments than
the Nova Scotia and Canadian lines, and therefore not
costing so much for yearly upholdence and improvements.
The capital amount of the above cost has been expended
as follows :
Engineering account $214,535.15
Permanent way 3,704,785.49
Buildings 192,281.94
Kolling stock and machinery 358,216.20
Miscellaneous stock 15,871.21
General expenses 63,424.60
$4,548,564.59
Other expenditures not included in the above 134,235.89
Grand Total $4,682,800.48
The total revenue of this line for the last year was
$130,078.15, being an increase on that of the previous year
of $14,452.75. This line has already been highly beneticial
to New Brunswick and to the city of St. John's. It has
attracted the trade and travel of Prince Edward Island
toward that city.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES.
The first line of telegraph communication was built in
New Brunswick in the year 1848. There is, at present,
-.**■
Ill-r
iii ' m
rflih
606
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
Bcven Imiulred miles of telegraph-line in the province of
New Brunswick, being eight hundred miles less than that
contained in Nova Scotia. The number of offices are
twenty-four ; telegraphists, twenty-nine. Number of other
employes, ten.
The most important lines, viz. : the line from Sackville
to Calais, and from St. John's to Woodstock, via. Freder-
icton, are let to the American Telegraph Company on
terms similar to that on which the Nova Scotia lines are
let. The rates of tolls are very nearly the same as in
Nova Scotia, making allowance for the diffisrence in the
currency of the two provinces.
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
The extent and value of the commerce and navigation
of the province, will be best shown by the following sta-
tistical tables, carefully compiled from official returns.
The first is a statement of the numbers and tonnage of
vessels, owned and registered in the province, on the 31st
day of December, in each of the years mentioned : —
Year.
Number.
Tons.
Year.
Number;
Tons.
1848.
...7G3..,
.113,825
1852.
...782..
.103,641
1849.
...775..
.117,475
1853.
...827..
.114,588
1850.
...807..
.121,996
1854.
...582..
.119,695
1851.
...796..
.118,288
1855.
...566..
.110,451
Estimating the population of the province in 1855, at
200,000 souls, the proportion of tonnage to population v^dll
be eleven-twentieths of a ton for each man, woman, and
child in the country — an unusually large proportion in any
community.
The following is a statement of the number of ships and
vessels, and their tonnage, which entered inwards at the
several ports of New Brunswick, from all parts of the
world, during five years, — distinguishing the various
countries from which they arrived : —
t\
•m Sackville
via. Freder-
^onipany on
itia lines are
same as in
renee in the
i navigation
)llo\ving sta-
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
607
?
From United
Kingdom.
From British
colonies.
From United
btatea.
From foreign
states.
Total
No.
325
233
273
219
248
208
126
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
1,304
1,457
1,453
1,511
1,767
1,642
1,659
Tons.
No.
51
68
57
49
78
109
42
Tons.
No.
2,893
3,039
3,058
3,314
3,556
3,700
3,442
Tons.
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
140,024
95,393
113,665
86,203
98,592
90,944
71,417
1,213
1,281
1,275
1,535
1,863
1,741
1,615
81,050
81,424
87,965
99,642
110,414
117,912
101,704
182,007
242,104
274,594
344,187
405,345
391,930
407,126
13.106
17,701
12,926
9,254
12,225
24,481
10,520
416,187
436,622
489.150
539,336
627,276
625,267
590,767
The next table contains a statement of the number of
ships and vessels, and their tonnage, cleared outwards during
five years, distinguishing the countries to which they sailed.
The increase in the number of vessels inwards and out-
wards, during the years stated, has been equal to the in-
crease in imports and exports, and shows the steady ad-
vanc( in trade and navigation.
p
To United
Kingdom.
To British
colonies.
To United
States.
To foreign
states.
Total.
No.
Tons.
No.
1,172
1,241
1,182
1,465
1,784
1,680
1,578
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
25
25
34
41
44
05
61
Tons.
No.
2,891
2,971
2,981
3,2;)8
3,929
.3,745
3,381
Tons.
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
769
768
815
793
902
930
523
300,806
203,617
347,757
353,013
413,796
436,007
324,908
68,097
70,155
73,280
86,652
102,216
97,130
95,256
928
937
950
999
1,191
1,064
1,219
84,742
87,925
111,772
1.35,580
158,523
155,985
233,075
3,769
3,286
5,717
6,227
6,763
11,764
10,742
457,414
464,983
538,528
581,472
681,478
700,886
663,981
The following table shows the value in sterling of the
imports and exports of the province of New Brunswick
from and to the United States, and from and to all
countries, during the last thirty-three years, or between
the years 1828 and 1860, both years inclusive.
From ond to the United States. From and to all conntries.
Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports.
1828. . . .£123,662 £18,084 £643,581 £457,855
1829 133,978 26,969 638,076 514,219
18.30 146,767 30,372 693,561 570,307
1831 77,476..... 18,017 603,870 427,318
1832.. . 123,192 30,798 704,059 541,800
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608 COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
From aiid to the United Stntcs. From and to all conntrles.
Im|>ort8. Exports. Imports. E.xports.
18.13 i;iG,4.'?2 29,.S62 694,599 558,621
18a4 109,606 20,411 781,167 578,907
1835 102,839 24,299 969,860 652,154
1836 112,713 29,224 1,249,537 652,645
1837 124,991 25,185 1,058,050 650,615
1838 121,160 25,598 1,204,629 792,119
1839 249,298 35,472 1,513,204 819,291
1840 254,1.34 2.3,808 1,336,317 753,036
1841 207,852 18,522 1,291.611 700,699
1842 162,422 29,453 648,.307 487,479
1843..., 140,259 16,190 639,686 538,592
1844 207,484 16,909 850,099 598,837
1845 312,313 27,940 1,105,998 787,624
1846 298,006 15,861 1,036,016 886,763
1847 340,098 44,644 1.125,328 696,399
1348 244,276 44,553 629,408 639,199
1849 264,562 51,582 693,927 601,462
18,50 262,148 77,400 815,531 658,018
1851 330,835 83,028 980,300 772,024
1852 393,210 8.3,792 1,110,601 796,335
1853 574,070 121,858 1,716,108 1,072,491
1854 711,234 97,930 2,068,773 1,104,215
1855 782,762 123,127 1,431,3.30 826,381
1856 714,515 173,485 1,621,178 1,073,351
1857 628,510 158,697 1,418,943 917,775
1858 664,245 163,702 1,162,771 810,779
1859 675,095 236,014 1,416,034 1,073,422
1860 688,217 248,378 1,446,740 916,372
The following table is a return
of revenue, in currency, of the
wick, during each financial year
years inclusive.
Tear. Amount in currency.
1837 £7.5,320
1838 79,167
1839 123,285
1840 109,942
1841 110,983
1842 55,904
1843 59,498 13
1844 92,333
1845 127,753
1840 127,403
1847 127,410
1848 86,437
16
3
9
3
7
10
17
7
10
9
2
0
13
0
14
2
1
9
17
1
7
2
14
3
showing the gross amount
province of New Bruns-
from 1837 to 1860, both
Tear. Amount in
1849 £95,536
1950 104,089
1861* 117,363
1852 138,220
1853 184,727
1854 203,054
1855 127,476
1856 149,248
1857 167,063
1858 136,357
1869 193,381
1860 208,331
currency.
17
4
9
6
0
10
1
2
4
4
14
11
3
11
7
6
18
10
15
1
1
0
1
10
The increase in the imports and exports during the last
six years is worth of especial notice, as marking the
* For elevec montha
mtrie*.
Exports.
,bS,b'l'l
il 8,907
552,154
352,645
S50,615
792,119
819,291
753,036
700,699
487,479
638,592
598,837
787,624
886,763
696,399
639,199
601,462
658,018
772,024
790,335
1,072,491
1,104,21S
826,381
1,073,351
917,775
, 810,779
1,073,422
, 916,372
'OSS amount
ew Bruns-
1860, both
aunt In currcncj'.
)5,536 17 4
)4,089 9 6
7,363 0 10
58.220 1 2
U,727 4 4
)3,054 14 11
27,476 3 11
49,248 7 6
67,063 18 10
36,357 15 1
93,381 1 0
08,331 1 10
ring the last
marking the
J
FORM OF GOVERNMENT.
609
steady progress and continued advancement of the coun-
try. Tlie apparent deficiency in each year between the
value of imports and the value of exports, is amply made
up by tlie sale of new ships in the United Kingdom, the
freight of their cargoes to the place of sale, the earnings
of the ships belonging to the province, and the prices ob-
tained for articles exported beyond the official estimate
of their value when shipped, leaving, on the whole, a
large balance of trade in favor of the province.
FORM OF GOVERNMENT.
Tlie chief executive officer is the Lieutenant-Governor,
appointed by the Sovereign of England, of whom he is
the immediate representative in the province. Ilis func-
tions are extensive, as he performs the duties of Comman-
der-in-Chief, Vice-Admiral, Chancellor, Ordinary, and
other higli offices. He administers the government with
the advice of an Executive Council of nine members, who
hold office only while they possess the confidence of the
people, as expressed through their representatives in the
Assembly, retiring on an adverse vote, precisely as the
ministry in England. The Legislative Council, or upper
House of the Legislature, consists of twenty-one members,
appointed by the crown during pleasure, but usually hold-
ing office for life. The lower House, or House of As-
sembly, is the popular branch, and consists of forty-one
members, elected by the people. The several counties,
and the city of St. John, are thus represented in the As-
sembly : Restigouche, two members ; Gloucester, two ;
Northumberland, four ; Kent, two ; Westmorland, four ;
Albert, two ; county of St. John, four ; city of St. John,
two; Charlotte, four ; King's, three ; Queen's, two; Sun-
bury, two ; York, four ; Carleton, two ; Victoria, two.
The Legislative Council has the power of amending or
rejecting bills sent to it by the House of Assembly, and
may originate bills, except money bills. The members of
the House of Assenbly are elected every four years, by
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610
JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS.
freeholders in the several counties, and by the citizens in
St. John. This House has tlie power of appropriating the
public moneys, levyin<5 duties, investigatinf; the public ac-
counts, and generally of legislating on the affairs of the
province, as they are brought under its notice by the gov-
ernment, by its own members, or by the petitions of the
people. Bills which have passed both branches of the le-
gislature, must receive the assent of the Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor before they become law ; and they are then subject
to the approval or disallowance of Her Majesty in Council.
JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS.
The Courts of Justice are, the Supreme Court, Court of
Vice Admiralty, Court for the trial and punishment of
Piracy, Probate Courts, Courts of Marriage and Divorce,
Inferior Courts of Common Pleas and General Sessions of
the peace, and Justices' Courts. The Court of Chancery
has been recently abolished, and its powers and duties
transferred to the Supreme Court. This court consists of
a chief-justice and assistant judges ; its jurisdiction ex-
tends to all criminal cases, and civil suits where the
amount in dispute exceeds five pounds, except in cases of
appeal from the Justices' Courts. It sits at Fredericton,
four terms in each year, and the judges go on circuit, and
bold the assizes in each county, the same as in England.
The Court of Vice- Admiralty is held at the city of St.
Jonn, and is presided over by one judge, holding his com-
mission from the Crown. This court decides maritime
causes, and has jurisdiction over prizes taken in war. The
Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy and other
offences committed on the high seas, consists of the Lieu-
tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice and other judges of the
Supreme Court, the members of the Executive Council,
the Judge of the Vice Admiralty, the Provincial Secretary
and the Provincial Treasurer, with the flag ofiicers and
captains and commanders of ships of war on the station
for the time be'ng. It sits at any place within the prov-
tizcna in
ating the
•ublic ac-
rs of the
' the gov-
18 of the
of the le-
lant-Cxov-
m subject
1 Council.
, Court of
ihinent of
Divorce,
lessions of
Chancery
md duties
consists of
liction ex-
where the
in cases of
redericton,
nrcuit, and
England,
city of St.
12: his com-
5 maritime
I war. The
r and other
)f the Liea-
idffes of the
ve Council,
al Secretary
oflicers and
the station
in the prov-
h Ai
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JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS.
611
ince appointed by any three of its members, the Lieu-
tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice, or one of the judges of
the Supreme Court, or the Judge of the Vice- Admiralty,
being one.
The Courts of Probate are held in each county, by Sur-
rogate Judges appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor.
These courts are always open for the transaction of busi-
ness, although regular sittings are usually held once in
each montii in the counties, and once each week in the
city of St. John. The duties of these courts relate to the
probate of wills, granting letters of administration for the
estates of persons dying intestate, making orders for the
distribution of such estates, and compelling executors and
administrators to render exact accounts of their proceed-
ings.
The Court of Governor and Council, for hearing and de-
termining cases relating to marriage and divorce, consists
of the Lieutenant-Governor, the members of the Executive
Council, and usually one or more of the Judges of the
Supreme Court. It sits at Fredericton on the second Tues-
day in February, and the third Tuesdays in June and
October.
The Inferior Courts of Common Pleas, and General
Sessions of the Peace, are held in each county four times in
the year. They are presided over by three or more judges,
appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, the
senior of whom acts as Chairman of the Magistrates at the
General Sessions. On the civil side, these courts have
jurisdiction of all causes where the sum in dispute exceeds
five pounds, except in cases where the title to land is in-
volved. On the criminal side, the Sessions exercise juris-
diction over larcenies and minor offences, not involving
capital punishment. The Sessions also, in counties not
yet incorporated, appoint county and parish officers and
audit their accounts, levy rates and taxes, and exercise
a general supervision over parish and county business.
In three counties which are now incorporated, those duties
39
Hi
il
ri
\im"'
1 1
f
11
PI
n I thk'M
L i'- i
i*
612
TENURE OF LAND — nOTEBITANCE.
are performed by a warden and councillors elected by the
rate-payers in each parish ; and doubtless other counties
will soon avail themselves of the privilege of being incor-
porated under the provisions of the Municipal Act.
The Justices' Courts are usually held at the residences
of the J ustices of the Peace in the several counties, when-
ever necessary or convenient. Two justices are compe-
tent to decide in cases of petty theft, or of assault and
battery, not accompanied by wounding or aggravating
circumstances. In civil suits, one justice decides causes
where the sum in dispute is less than five pounds, or the
damages claimed are less than forty shillings, except where
the title to lands comes in question. An appeal lies from
the decision of the justices in these cases to the judges of
the Supreme Court.
TENURE OF LAND AND LAW OF INHERITANCE.
All lands are held in New Brunswick in free and cou:
mon socage, or simple freehold, by letters-patent from the
Crown, under the Great Seal of the province. No quit-
rent, due, or service is imposed ; mines and minerals only
are reserved to Her Majesty and her successors, but may
be worked by the land-owner, on paying a small royalty.
Granted land is transferred from one individual to another
by sin)ple deed of feoifment, or indenture of bargain and
^le, which must be registered in the office of the registrar
of deeds, in the county where the land lies, in order to be
eflfective. Mortgages, wills, memorials of judgment which
bind real estate, leases, and other instruments affecting the
title to land, must also be registered in the same office,
where searches can be made and titles ascertained.
In the distribution of real estate, the widow, in all cases,
has her right of dower, or one-third during life ; when
there is no will, the law gives two shures to the eldest son,
and one share to each of the other sons and daughters. If
there are no children, the estate is divided among the next
of kin, in equal shares. Of personal property, the widow
"M
I !'
=il
jcted by the
ler countieB
being incor-
[ Act.
tie residences
inties, when-
9 are compe-
' assault and
' aggravating
ecides causes
ounds, or the
, except where
•peal lies from
the judges of
IITANCE.
free and cou:
atent from the
ice. Kg quit-
i minerals only
sssors, but may
, small royalty,
dual to another
of bargain and
of the registrar
I, in order to be
judgment which
ints affecting the
the same office,
'ertained.
dow, in all cases,
ring life; when
to the eldest son,
i daughters. K
i among the next
jerty, the widow
EELIGIOUS WORSHIP — EDUCATION.
613
takes one-third, and the lesidue is divided equally among
the sons and daughters, share and share alike. If there
are no children, the widow is entitled to one-half of the
personal estate, and the other half is appropriated among
the next of kin, in equal proportion.
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP AXD MEANS OF EDUCATION.
The extent of the provision for the worship of God, will
be best understood by the following statement of the places
of public worship in each county, and the number of clergy-
men in the provinces : —
Places of worship in Restigouch ' county, 6 ; Glouces-
ter, 19 ; Northumberland, 32 ; Kent, 21 ; Westmorland,
38 ; Albert, 20 ; St. John, 40 ; Charlotte, 53 ; Kings, 61 ;
Queens, 40 ; Sunbury, 15 ; York, 45 ; Carleton, 25 ; Vic-
toria, 8. Total places of worship in the province, 423.
The number of clergymen of the several religious de-
nominations in New Brunswick, in 1853, is thus stated : —
The Episcopal Church of England and Ireland, as by
law established, one bishop, one archdeacon, and 58 clergy-
men. The Roman Catholic Church, one bishop, two vic-
ars general, and 23 priests. The Church of Scotland, as
by law established, 8 clergymen ; the Presbytery of New
Brunswick, adhering to the Westminster Standards, 13
clergymen ; the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland,
3 clergymen ; Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia, 1 cler-
gyman ; Wesleyan Methodists, 33 ministers ; Baptists, 52
ministers and 7 licentiates; Free Christian Baptists, 18
ministers ; General Baptist Church, 2 ministers; Congrega-
tional Church, or Independents, 4 ministers.
With the exception of some assistance received by the
clergy of the Church of England from the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and by the
Wesleyan ministers from the Methodist Missionary Society
in England, the clergy of New Brunswick are supported
almost wholly by the contributions of the members of their
j;?
f M4 J' i
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I :
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Jill
614
EDUCAnON.
several churches, on the vohmtary principle, no tithes or
other charges for ecclesiastical purposes being known in the
province.
EDUCATION.
New Brunswick, with its limited population and rev-
enue, devotes annually about £12,000 sterling to educa-
tional purposes. Few countries in the world, in propor-
tion to population and income, devote so large a sum to
the education of the rising generation.
At the head of the educational establishments of the
province is King's College, at Fredericton, which was es-
tablished by Royal Charter dated 18th November, 1823.
The object of this College, as declared in the Charter, is
" the education of youth in the principles of the Christian
religion, and their instruction in the various branches of
literature and science." It receives a grant amounting to
£2,000 sterling per annn. i from the province, and has be-
sides a revenue arising from its endowment in lands, which
have enabled the College Council to erect a spacious
building, provide a considerable library, and the requisite
scientific, mathematical, and astronomical instruments.
In each county of the province, except York, King's,
and Victoria, there is a Grammar School, supported by
subscriptions, tuition fees, and a grant of £100 per annum
from the provincial treasury. These Grammar Schools
are managed by trustees ; instruction Is given in the class-
ics, and in the usual bi-anches of English education —
and here the foundation is laid for admission into Colleire.
In York County, the Collegiate School at Fredericton,
under King's College, takes the place of a Grammar
School.
The Baptist Seminary at Fredericton is under the gen-
eral superintendence of the Baptist Association of New
Brunswick, by whom it was founded in 1836. The course
of instruction comprises the classics, English education,
and mathematics. It has no permanent revenues, and its
no tithes or
cnown in the
icn and rev-
nsr to educa-
id, in propor-
i,rge a sum to
ments of the
vhich was es-
ember, 1823.
le Charter, is
the Christian
branches of
amounting to
e, and has be-
n lands, which
ct a spacious
1 the req^uisite
istruments.
York, King's,
supported by
LOO per annum
nmar Schools
en in the class-
h education—
m into College.
,t Fredericton,
)f a Grammar
under the gen-
[jiation of New
56. The course
lish education,
ivenues, and its
EDUCATION.
615
maintenance depends on grants from the provincial legis-
lature and the contributions of the denomination.
The Wesleyan Methodists have an Academy at Mount
Allison, a very pleasant situation, at Sackville, in the
county of Westmorland. The building, which is handsome
and spacious, was completed in 1843, by private subscrip-
tions, and a very large donation from C. F. Allison, Esq.,
from whom the place takes its name. Tliis institution is
incorporated, and a managing committee has the direction
of its affairs. The branches of learning taught are, the
class'cs, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philos-
ophy, and divinity. This Academy receives a small
grant from the province annually, but is chiefly supported
by tuition money and private subscriptions.
The expenses of board and tuition at the Baptist Acad-
emy and the Wesleyan Academy, are about £30 per
annum.
An incorporated body, styled " The Governor and Trus-
tees of the Madras School in New Brunswick," Is en-
dowed with certain lands and grants of money ; it has
established schools at St. John, Fredericton, and other
places in the province, where many children of the poorer
classes are taught gratis, besides being furnished with
books, and sometimes with clothing.
But the schools most generally diffused throughout the
province are the Common or Parish Schools, which en-
able the children in every settlement, unless very remote,
to obtain the blessings of education.
The Act relating to Parish Schools makes the following
provisions, which are now in operation. The Lieutenant-
Governor, with the Executive Council and the Superin
tendent of Schools, constitute a provincial Board of Edu-
cation. Tlie Governor and Council appoint the Super-
intendent, who acts as Secretary to the Board, and they
also appoint an Inspector of Schools for each county. A
Model School and a Training School are established, and
examiners appointed of those who desire to become
iF- 1'
5 Hi
/^'' I''
""%.
616
EDUCATION.
teachers. On the report of the examiners the Board of
Education grants licenses to the persons examined as first,
second, or third class teachers. The Inspectors of Schools
visit and examine the schools in their several districts four
times in each year, or oftener, if the Board directs, and
make an annual report. Male teachers of the third class
receive from the Provincial Treasury £22 10s. currency
per aimum, and are required to teach reading, writing,
spelling, and arithmetic. Teachers of the second class re-
ceive £30 currency per annum, and in addition to the fore-
going, nmst teach English grammar, geography, history,
and bookkeeping. Teachers of the first class receive £37
10*. per annum, and besides what is taught by the two
preceding classes, must also teach geometry, mensuration,
land-surveying, navigation, and algebra. Female teachers
of the third class receive £1 7 10s. per annum, and teach
spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and common needle-
work. Those of the second class receive £22 10s. per an-
num, and in addition teach English grammar and geog-
raphy. Female teachers of the first class receive £27
10s. per annum, and teach history in addition to what is
taught by the second and third class teachers. No teacher
is paid for a less period than six months, unless under
special circumstances, nor unless the inhabitants of the
district have raised by assessment, or paid for his or her
support, in the same proportion as the provincial al-
lowance. Any parish or district which voluntarily as-
sesses itself for the support of common schools, receives
from the provincial treasury twenty-five per cent, more than
parishes or districts which do not assess ; but in case of such
assessment the tuition money must not exceed two shil-
lings sterling per quarter. In every school, three children
of indigent parents are admitted as free scholars.
The provincial allowance for schools must not exceed
an average of £200 currency to each parish in any one
county, or £260 to any one parish therein. The number
of parish schools and scholars in each county, in 1S53, is
i?
CIVIL LIST, HEVENUE, AND EXPENDITURE.
617
thus stated : Restigouche, 22 schools, 508 scholars ; Glou-
cester, 35 schools, 1,167 scholars; Northumberland, 58
scholars ; Kent, 36 schools, 1,169 scholars ; Westmorland,
95 schools, 2,967 scholars ; Albert, 33 schools, 994 schol-
ars; St. John, 64 schools, 2,869 scholars; Charlotte, 122
schools, 2,702 scholars ; King's, 97 schools, 2,507 scholars ;
Queen's, 65 schools, 1,643 scholars ; Sunbury, 22 schools,
751 scholars ; York, 57 schools, 2,659 scholars ; Carleton,
56 schools, 1,612 scholars; Victoria, 12 schools, 275
scholars.
Besides these parish schools, there are foui Roman Cath-
olic schools in diflPerent parts of the province, an academy
at St. Stephen, an infant school at Fredericton, as also an
African school and a commercial school at St. John, which
received special grants annually from the legislature.
Th,e number of parish schools in 1852, wa^ 588, attended
by 18,591 scholars ; the numbers in 1853 were, schools,
744, scholars, 24,127 ; evincing a marked increase both of
schools and scholars.
CIVIL LIST, REVENUE, AND EXPENDITURE.
In 1837, the proceeds of all Her Majesty's hereditarj',
territorial, and casual revenues, and of all sales and leases
of Crown lands, woods, mines, and royalties in New
Brunswick were surrendered to the province, and made
payable to the provincial treasurer. In consideration of
this surrender, the sum of £14,500 currency, annually, was
granted to Her Majesty to provide for the payment of the
civil list of the province. The salaries of the lieutenant-
governor and the principal oflBcers of the province are
borne on this list, and paid from the sum so granted.
The following statement of expenditure in 1854 and
1855, in pounds sterling, shows the various objects for
which the provincial revenues are annually disbursed.
V . -. I Id
:ii!-
1^:^;
i
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mf
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018 BANKS FOR SAVINGS, ETC.
Iluads of cxpondituro 1854. 180B.
Civil list £13,195 £12,083
Pay and expenses of the legislature 9,749 9,619
Collection and protection of the revenue. . 5,806 5,216
Judicial establishment 1,362 1,628
Printing laws, &c 2,313 3,429
College and Grammar schools 2,133 1,860
Parish and Madras schools 12,548 13,685
Great roads and bridges 27,016 24,526
By-roads 24,377 22,596
Navigation of rivers 2,326 6*48
Public buildings 765 -,169
Wharves and landings 2,069 739
Post-office, couriers, &c 4,334 3,937
Lunatic Asylum 5,106 3,203
Provincial Penitentiary 1,500 3,062
Destruction of bears and wolves 210 ....
Erection of oat-mills 83 41
Agricultural societies 3,498 1,758
Fishing societies 418 300
Relief of immigrants 673 741
Charitable purposes 2,588 7,250
(}rant to Patriotic Fund 5,000
Indians 437 415
Return duties 425 230
Miscellaneous 4,318 4,934
Interest on sums bon-owed 4,810 3,952
Support of lighthouses 3,397 3,115
Support of sick and disabled seamen 822 1,286
Military expenditure 287 133
£136,463 £138,353
BANKS FOR SAVINGS ; YALUB OP COINS ; RATE OF INTEREST.
Savings' Banks are established in several parts of the
province, where deposits are received to the extent of £60
currency for one person, and interest allowed at the rate
of five per cent, per annum. These banks are regulated
by law, and the Province Treasurer is authorized to receive
the money deposited in them, and allow six per cent, in-
terest ; the diiFerence of one per cent, in the interest pays
the expenses of these institutions.
The Spanish dollar is taken as the standard of currency;
Its value is established by law at five shillings currency.
The public accounts are kept, and returns made, in ar-
my sterling, which rates the dollar at four shillings and
two pence sterling. To bring currency into army sterling,
GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS.
619
it is only necessary to deduct one-sixth ; and to bring
sterling into currency, to add one-fifth to the several
amounts.
The sovereign is a legal tender at 24:8. id. currency.
The English crown-piece passes at 68. Id. ciu*rency, and
other silver coins in proportion. Immigrants should not
bring bank-notes, as those are generally sold at less than
the same amount in gold or silver.
The legal rate of interest is six per cent, per annum.
No greater rate is allovs^ed to be taken, except in the case
of bottomry bonds, or the loan of grain, cattle, or live
stock, where the lender takes the risk of casualties upon
himself.
GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS.
Immigrants to Kew Brunswick are especially cautioned
against taking passage to Quebec, as there are no regular
means of conveyance from that port to any of the Lower
Provinces. The only route is by railway to Portland, in
Maine, and thence by steamer to St. John, which is ex-
pensive.
Passage tickets should always be carefully retained by
immigrants, so that if they are not treated according to law,
or are landed at a different place from that named in the
ticket, they may obtain redress. Immigrants are warned
that they have no claim of right on the immigrant fund,
and lihould provide themselves with sufficient means of
their own, for tlieir subsistence and conveyance into the
interior from the port where they land. Sick immigrants
only are provided at the public expense. Agricultural
laborers need not bring out implements of husbandry, as
these can easily be procured in the province ; but artisans
are recommended to bring such tools as they possess, if
not too bulky. Those who intend to become settlers,
should bring a stock of comfortable warm clothing, with
blankets and strong boots and shoes for their families.
There is no duty on the household effects of iiamigrants.
• (
'Hii
l^i'
u
620
OKNEBAL INFOKMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS.
The best period to arrive in New Brunswick is early in
May, 80 as to be in time to take advaiitagf of the spring
and summer work, and get comfortably settled before the
winter sets in. The average length of passages to New
Brunswick from great Britain and Ireland is 36 days, but
the Passengers' Act requires provisions and water to be
laid in for 70 days. Passengers are entitled by law to be
maintained on board the ship, the same as during the voy-
age, for 48 hours after arrival in port. The tax on each
passenger is 2». Qd. currency (2«. 1(/. sterling), which is
paid by the master of the ship ; and security must be
given by bond, in the penalty of £75 currency, that any
lunatic, idiot, maimed, blind, or infirm person not belong-
ing to an immigrant family, shall not become chargeable
to the funds of the province for three years. This bond
may however be dispensed with, or cancelled by order of
the lieutenant-governor m council, on payment of such
reasonable sum as shall be deemed just and proper under
the circumstances.
Until immigrants become acquainted with the labor of
the country, their services are of comparatively small value
to their employers. They should therefore be careful not
to fall into the common error of refusing reasonable wages
on their first arrival.
Demand for Labor. — The progress of agriculture ir
New Brunswick causes a steady demand for labor in the
rural districts, and, for the last two years, farmers have
suiFered more than any other class, from an inadequate
supply of agricultural laborers and female domestics. In
the towns there has also been great scarcity of female ser-
vants, and a supply of these is greatly needed. Boys from
twelve to eighteen years of age 'are greatly in demand
throughout the province by farmers and mechanics. Un-
skilled laborers are generally sure of employment, at from
two and sixpence to four shillings sterling per day, accord-
ing to ability and the length of time for which they are
engaged. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, and joiners are
m
i early in
he spring
before tlie
3 to New
days, but
ater to be
law to be
g the voy-
kX on each
, which is
' must be
■, that any
lot belong-
chargeable
This bond
»y order of
nt of such
oper under
le labor of
small value
careful not
lable wages
ricultnre ir
abor in the
rmers have
inadequate
nestics. In
r female ser-
Boys from
in demand
lanics. Un-
lent, at from
day, accord-
lich they are
d joiners are
OENEKAL INFORM A riON FOB IMMIGKANTS.
621
in request at good wages ; and there is no scarcity of em-
ployinent for millwrights, smiths, foundrymen, and work-
ers in iron generally, painters, tailors, and shoemakers.
The Cleakino of Wild Land is to be understood as
cutting down and burning the trees, fencing, and leaving
the laii<l ready for crop, the stumps and roots alone re-
maining t ' it'tpede the operations of the farmer. The ex-
pense van greatly, according to circumstances, biit may
be stated wo to four pounds sterling per acre. A com-
fortable log-house, sixteen by twenty-four feet, two floors,
and shingled roof, costs twelve to lifteen pounds sterling,
but much less when the work is chiefly performed by the
immigrant himself. When properly built, this description
of house is extremely warm and comfortable. No immi-
grant should undertake to clear land and make a farm un-
less he has the means of supporting his family for twelve
months. It is better that the immigrant should engage
himself to a farmer for the first year or two after his
arrival, by which he will obtain experience as to the work
of the country and the mode of ci»nducting a farm, while
laying up his wages wherewith to make a beginning in
the forest.
L' the immigrant is possessed of some capital, he should
by no means expend it in endeavoring to make a farm
in the wilderness, as he will be almost certain thereby to
waste his means. He sht »uld buy land partially cleared,
either in crop or ready for crop ; lie will always find per-
sons ready to sell their land, with house and clearing,
stock, and implements of husbandry suitable to the
country, at a much less price than he could procure them
for himself.
By adopting this course, an immigrant that arrives in
New Brunswick with £100 sterling, will in a few years
find himself in easy and independent circumstances, and
the greater number he has in family, the better ofi" he
will be.
The Direct Taxes payable by a settler, are for poor
1( ■ 1 f!!; S
i;i
t'
I
Li
Ifi
:,i:-i*
622
GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS.
rates, couvity expenses, and occasional assessments for
public buildings ; in the case of a small fanner, these
altogether seldom amount to one pound per annum.
The settler is also liable to perform statute labor on
the roads, streets, and bridges in his county, but not
the first year after his arrival in the country. He may
perform this labor either in person or by sufficient substi-
tute, eight hours of actual labor being considered a day's
work ; or he may commute the same, at the rate of one
shilling and threepence currency for each day's labor. The
scale of annual assessment for statute labor is as fol-
lows:— Persons between eighteen and twenty-one years
of age, two days ; above twenty-one years, four days ; and
one day in addition for every £100 in value of his real
and personal estate, or one day for every £25 of his an-
nual income, up to sixty days' labor, beyond which no
person can be assessed. Every rate-payer is liable to serve
the following offices in his parish ; constable, pound-keeper,
fence-viewer, parish clerk, overseer of the poor, clerk of
the market, assessor or collector of rates, road-commis-
sioner, surveyor of highways, trustee of schools, and
some other offices peculiar to certain counties, such as sur-
veyors of dams, overseers of fisheries, boom-masters, and
timber-drivers, for all which, however (except as trustee
of schools), small fees or perquisites are allowed. All per-
sons between sixteen and sixty years of age, are liable to
serve in the militia in case of necessity.
OiiniNAKY Diseases. — As yet, no regular bills of mor-
tality are made up in the province; and with respect to
the ordinary diseases of the country, their type and preva-
lence, reference can only be had to the reports of the medi-
cal officers in charnre of the troops in the colony, which are
prepared with great minuteness and precision. In the re-
port submitted to Parliament in 1853, it is stated that
common continued fever constitutes about two-thirds of
the fevers in this command ; but is much less frequent
than even among the most favored class of troops in the
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.
623
United Kingdom, and much less severe in its character.
The proportioH of typhus is also smaller than in the
United Kingdom, although its intensity is much the same;
eruptive fevers have been so rare as scarcely to require
notice. In a former report, attention was called to the
fact, that notwithstanding the greater severity of the cli-
mate, and the sudden alternations of temperature to which
the troops are exposed, the proportion both of admissions
into hospital, and deaths by diseases of the lungs, was
lower than among an equal number of infantry in the
United Kingdom ; and the same was observable during
the ten years included in the report of 1853. Diseases of
the liver ai*e stated to be rare in this command, more
so than among the same class of troops in the United
Kingdom. Other classes of diseases, although a source
of considerable ineflBciency, are stated not to add much
to the mortality ; most of these ure produced by habitual
drunkenness, arising from the low price and facility of
procuring ardent spirits. On the whole, there is much
less sickness and mortality, both among officers and men,
than in any part of the United Kingdom.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.
All the fruits generally found in England are grown in
liTew Brunswick, especially apples, pears, plums, currants,
gooseberries, strawberries, and cherries. Of the wild
fruits, there are strawberries, cranberries, gooseberries,
raspberries, blackberries, great whortleberries, blue wlior-
tlcbcrrics, wild cherries, and some others. Butter-nuts,
hazel-nuts, and beech-nuts are plentiful in many places.
The potatoes of New Brunswick are most excellent;
those grown in newly cleared land are often drier than
others, and of superior flavor. AH the varieties of peas
and bonis, turnips, beets, carrots, parsnips, cabbages, cau-
liflo^\ n s, celery, cucumbers, and squashes, with all other
common culinary vegetables of the United Kingdom, are
cultivated with success.
i''
M'
mi
;||:f|:
I! H.,
624.
THE ABOEiaiNES.
WILD BEASTS AND GAME.
Occasionally, wolves annoy the farmer to a small ex-
tent ; in the more settled districts sheep are usually pro-
tected by a fold. The farmer may sometimes lose a stray
hog by the bears ; but there are many farmers who have
lived all their lives in the province without seeing wolf or
bear. As in other countries, foxes and smaller animals are
destructive to poultry that is not looked after carefully.
Game is mentioned as forming one of the natural re-
sources of the country. The animals hunted are the elk,
or moose-deer ; the cariboo, a species of reindeer ; and the
Virginian red deer. Of the smaller animals, which are
taken either by hunting or trapping, there are the beaver,
otter, mink, musk-rat, marten (a species of sable), fox,
fisher (or pine marten), lynx, raccoon, porcupine, wood-
chuck, ermine, and northern hare. Of birds, there are
wild geese, wild ducks, in great variety, and wood grouse,
usuali) called partridges. Snipe and woodcock afford
some fine shooting, in their season. There are several
sorts of c lew, some very large, and an infinite variety of
the plovei' tribe. The passenger-pigeon sometimes visits
the province in great numbers.
As has been already stated, all the rivers, lakes, and
streams of New Brunswick abound with fish, in consid-
erable variety ; and if a man thinks proper, in the words
of Izaak Walton, " to be pleasant, and eat a trout," he
can gratify his taste almost anywhere in the province.
THE ABORIGINES.
There are in New Brunswick two tribes of Indians,
difibring widely irom each other in their language, cus-
toms, iniplements, and habits of life. The marked dis-
tinction, in almost every particular, between these tribes,
inhal)iting the same country, and evidently sprung from
the same stock, constitutes a remarkable point of interest.
First in order, not only as the most numerous, but as
CONCLUSION.
625
possessing both moral and physical superiority over the
others, are the Micmacs — a tall and powerful race of men,
who speak a dialect of the Algonquin language, and fre-
quent the northern or gulf shore of the province. The less
numerous and inferior body are the Milicetes, who speak
a dialect of the Huron language, and frequent the river
St. John and its tributary waters. The Micmacs are
strongly attached to the seaside, near which they are
generally found ; hence the Milicetes call them " salt-
water Indians." The Milicetes, on the contrary, have
great aversion to salt water ; they are thorough woodsmen,
and confine themselves to the lakes and streams of the in-
terior, for navigating which their light canoes are well
adapted.
An enumeration of the Indians of the province was
made by the writer, in IS-il, when it was found that their
numbers stood thus : — Of Micmacs ; adults — males, 229 ;
females, 255 ; under 14 — boys, 215 ; girls, 236 ; total,
935. Of Milicetes ; adults — males. Ill; females, 113;
under 14 — boys, 107 ; girls, 111 ; total, 442. The whole
number of Indians in the province, in 1841, was, therefore,
1,377. By the census of 1851, it appears that the numbers
then found amounted to 1,116 only ; and there is reason to
believe, from inquries recently made, that their numbers
do not now reach 1,000. That they are steadily decreasing,
is beyond a doubt ; and this, in a great degree, is owing to
the ravages made among their adults by small-pox and ty-
phus fever, and among children by measles, whooping-
cough, scarlet fever, and other diseases to which children
arc subject. Ycry few submit to be vaccinated, and hence
small-pox is their great scourge. Their unwillingness to
undergo regular medical treatment, is the reason why dis-
eases arc fatal among them, and not so to persons of Eu-
ropean descent.
The Micmacs subsist during the summer chiefly by fish
ing and fowling ; during winter many of them find era
ployment with lumbermen in the forest. On the Mira
i
Tt'f
!,"'
m
'Hill
'Jivi
m
ill
I' it
!n;:
I ■'•.Ml U:. 1 " ,
i J I
626
CONCLUSION.
michi and Richibucto rivers several Micraac families have
turned their attention to the cultivation of the soil, and
have comfortable houses, with some stock. The Milicetes
hunt and trap during the winter ; in summer they make
baskets and other light articles, varying their labor with
fishing and shooting. The people of both cribes live on
the most friendly terms with their white neighbors ; and
they are often engaged by sportsmen as their attendants
on excursions along the coast or up the rivers ; an em-
ployment of which they are very fond.
CONCLUSION.
The observations of Lord Durham, with respect to the
capabilities and advantages of the British North American
colonies, are specially applicable to New Brunswick. It
possesses great i atural resources for the maintenance of
large and flourishing communities. A wide range of the
best soil still remains unsettled, and may be rendered
available for the purposes of agriculture. The wealth of
forests of the best timber, and of extensive regions con-
taining valuable minerals, yet remains untouched. Along
the whole line of sea-coast, around each island, and in
every river, are to be found the most productive fisheries
in the world. The best fuel and most abundant water-
power are available for manufactures. Trade with other
countries is favored by the possession of a large number
of safe and commodious harbors. Numerous rivers, long and
deep, supply the means of easy internal intercourse ; the
structure of the country, generally, aifords the utmost fa-
cility for every species of conmiunication by land. Un-
bounded materials of agricultural, commercial, and manu-
facturing industry are present. These elements of wealth
and special advantages need only capital and labor to be
turned to profitable account, and render New Brunswick,
with a large and flourishing population, one of the fairest
and richest portions of British colonial empire.
i, i
rers: an em-
DESCEIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
PROGRESS OF POPULATIONS.
627
The total population of New Brunswick, in 1824, was
74,176 souls; in 1834, it >vas 119,457 souls; in 1840, it
was 154,000 souls ; and in 1851 (in the last census), it was
193,800 souls. At present the population is estimated at
210,000 souls, and upwards.
The increase of population in New Brunswick has been
greater than that in the neighboring State of Maine, by
7.29 per cent. ; than that of New Hampshire, by 11.79
per cent. ; and than that of Vermont, by 16.07 per cent. ;
and it has exceeded their aggregate and average ratio by
10.86 per cent.
AN ACCOUNT OP THE NUKBER OP IMMiaRANTS* ARRIVED IN THE PKOVIXCK
OP NP;W BRUNSWICK BETWEEN THE YEARS 184-t AND 1^00, BOTH YEARS
INCLUSIVE.
Year. No. immigrants arrived,
1844 2,605
1845 6,133
1846 9,765
1847 14,879
1848 4,141
1849 2,724
1850 1,838
1851 3,470
1852 2,165
Ycnr. No. imraigrnnts arrived.
1853 3,762
1854 3,440
1855 1,539
1856 708
1857 607
1858 390
1859 230
1860 323
Immigrants arrived at the port of St. John in 1860, 315
" " atCaraquet 8
Total for New Brunswick in 1860, 323
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
Restigouche. — This is the northernmost county in the
province. It has a large fri>ntage on the Bay of Chaleur,
and is bounded northerly by the forty-eighth parallel of
north latitude, which is the dividing line between New-
♦ A duty of 2s. 6d. currency, or 2s. Id, sterling, was imposed by an act of
the Colonial Legislature on each immigrant arriving in the province. In the
year ending 3l8t December, 1860, the sum of £40 7s. Gd. currency was col-
lected in this colony on account of immigrant duty.
40
£ E
i
628
DEeCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
Brunswick and Canada in that quarter. It abuts west-
wardly on Victoria county, and is bounded southerly by
Gloucester and Northumberland.
Tiestigouche county cc!'tains 1,426,560 acres of which
156,979 acres are granted, and 1,269,581 acres are still
vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 8,895 acres only.
The population, in 1851, was 4,161 ; of whom 2,353 were
males, and 1,808 were females. Lumbering is carried on
extensively in Restigouche, which will account for the
excess of males. This county is divided into five parishes
— Addington, Colborne, Dalhousie, Durham, and Eldon.
The shire town is Dalhousie, a neat town at the mouth
of the River Restigouche. It is built on an easy slope, at
the base of a high hill; the streets are broad and clean.
A crescent-shaped cove in front of the town is well shel-
tered, and has good holding ground for ships, in six and
seven fathoms water. There are excellent wharves, and
safe timber ponds at Dalhousie, affording every conveni-
ence for loading ships of the largest class. The eastern
point of Dalhousie harbor is in latitude 48° 4' north, longi-
tude G(j° 22' west. Variation of the compass, 20° 45' west.
Neap tides rise six feet, and spring tides nine feet. From
Dalhousie to the village of Campbelton the distance by the
river is about eighteen miles. The whole of this distance
may be considered one harbor, there being from four to
nine fathoms throughout, in the main channel. At Camp-
belton the river is about three-quarters of a mile wide;
above this place, the tide flows six miles, but large ves-
sels do not go further up than Canipbelton. In 1853,
ninety vessels, of the burden of 18,217 tons, entered the
port of Dalho«sie.
The soil in this county is very fertile, and produces large
crops ; it is especially noted for the excellent quality of its
grain. The best wheat grown there weighs sixty-iive
pounds per bushel; barley, fifty-six pounds per bushel;
black oats, forty-two pounds per bushel ; white oats, forty-
seven pounds per bushel. The productiveness in Kesti-
JODNTIES.
It abuts west-
led southerly by
) acres of which
1 acres are still
8,895 acres only,
whom 2,353 were
ing is carried on
account for the
into five parishes
bam, and Eldon.
wn at the mouth
I an easy slope, at
broa<l and clean,
town is well shel-
r ships, in six and
[lent wharves, and
ing every conveni-
lass. The eastern
48° 4' north, longi-
npass, 20° 45' west,
s nine feet. From
the distance by the
ole of this distance
being from four to
hannel. At Camp-
us of a mile wide;
dies, but large ves-
pbclton. In 1853,
T tons, entered the
and produces large
KcUent quality of its
e weighs sixty-live
pounds per bushel;
[ ; white oats, forty
nctiveness in
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
629
gonche, although so far northj affirms the principle, that
"climate, unless it be very severe, is by no means the
most influential element in determining the agricultural
capabilities of a country." The geological character of
any country has more influence upon its economical pros-
pects than climate, and should be equally, if not more
carefully studied.
Gloucester. — This county lies between Restigoucho and
Northumberland, and has a long range of sea-coast, in
' part on the Bay of Chaleur, and in part on the Gulf of St.
Lawrence ; it also includes the Islands of Shippagan and
Miscon, which form the north-eastern extremity of the
province.
Gloucester county contains 1,037,440 acres, of which
332,902 acres are granted, and 704,538 acres are yet
vacant. The amount of cleared land is 19,812 acres. The
population in 1851, was 11,704 souls, of whom 1,479 were
males and 1,434 were females. Owing to the extent of
sea-coast and the facilities for prosecuting the fisheries,
there are many fishermen in this county. The value of
the catch, in 1851, was returned at £15,693.
There are six parishes in Gloucester — Bathurst, Beres-
ford, Caraquet, New-Bandon, Saumarez, and Shippagan.
Bathurst is the shire town. It is pleasantly situated between
the Nepisiguit and Middle rivers, on a point of land which
has a very easy slope to the harbor. The entrance to the
harbor is between two low points of sand and gravel, and
is about 230 yards across. Outside this entrance is the
bar, on which, at spring tides, there is fifteen feet of water.
Within the entrance, the harbor is a beautifal basin, about
three and a half miles in length, and t\\ o miles in width,
well sheltered from every wind. In the principal channel
there is about fourteen feet at low water, and vessels draw-
ing more than fourteen feet usually take in part of their
cargoes outside the bar, in the roadstead, where there
is from six to ten fathoms water, and good holding-ground.
The entrance to Bathurst harbor is in latitude 47° 39' uortli,
. ■('■
.r' <f
630
DESCRIPTION OF TIIK PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES.
longitude 65° 38' west ; the rise and fall of tide, lour to
seven feet. In 1853, eighty-four vessels, of the burden
of 11,473 tons, entered the port of Bathurst.
The Nepisiguit River, flowing into Bathurst harbor, ia
eigiity miles long, but not navigable, owing to the number
of cascades, falls, and rapids. Large quantities of timber
are floated down it for shipment. Great numbers of salmon
ascend this river every season, as far as the Grand Falls.
At the north-eastern part of this county is the spacious
haven of Shippagan, which comprises three large and com-
modious harbors, between the islands of Pocksoudie and
Shippagan, and the mainland. Within these harbors
there is good anchorage for vessels of the largest class,
which can lie perfectly sheltered from every wind. The
rise and fall of tide is from three to six feet. Miscoii
harbor (formerly called Little Shippagan) lies between
the islands of Miscou and Shippagan. It has a good an-
chorage, well sheltered, with three to five fathoms at low
water. This excellent harbor is of much use and import-
ance to fishing vessels frequenting the gulf, which resort to
it greatly in stormy weather.
The Caraquet, Pokemouche, and Tracadie rivers are
wholly in Gloucester county, and there is much good land
vet vacant on their banks.
In 1851, there were 14,302 grindstones made in this
county, and 21,157 lbs. of maple sugar. The quantity of
butter made was 82,691 lbs.
KoRTiiuxiBERLANU. — Tliis Is tlic largest county in the
province. Its front on the gulf includes the whole bay of
Miramichi, from Tabusintac to Point Escuminac, whence
it spreads out to a great breadth westerly, abutting on Sun-
bury, York, and Victoria, with Kent to the southward.
The county of Northumberland contains 2,980,000 acres,
of which 986,168 acres are granted, and 1,993,832 are still
vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 30,221 acres. lu
1851, the population was 15,064 souls, being little more
than one soul to each 200 acres in the county. The in-
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
63i
habitants are chiefly employed in lumbering, agriculture,
and the fisheries, while the ship-yards and saw-mills aflbitl
much employment for ordinary labor. There are ten par-
ishes in this county — Alnwick, Blackville, Blissficld, Cliat-
ham, Glenelg, Hardwicke, Ludlow, Nelson, Newcastle,
and Northesk. The shire town is Newcastle, situated about
thirty miles from the gulf, on the left bank of the Mirami-
chi. Douglastown is a thriving village, about three miles
below Newcastle, on the same side of the river, with every
convenience for business. Chatham is a bustling little
town, on the right bank of the Miramichi, about twenty-
five miles from the gulf, rather crowded along the water side,
but with deep water in front, and many facilities for load-
ing large vessels. In 1853, two hundred and seventy-seven
vessels, 34-,o28 tons burden, entered the port of Miramichi.
There is a bar at the entrance of the port ; but the river is
of such large size, and pours forth such a volume of water,
that the bar offers no impediment to navigation, there
being sufficient depth of water on it, at all times, for ves-
sels of seven or eight hundred tons, and nowhere less than
three fathoms in the entrance, at low water. From the
entrance there is six and seven fathoms, in the channel, up
to Newcastle. Owing to the size and depth of the Mi-
ramichi, ships can load along its banks anywhere for
miles ; and, consequently, detached villages have sprung
up, wanting many of the advantages which would be
gained from having one large town. The tide rises from
three to five feet. The variation of the compass is 21°
west.
In 1853, the following quantities of fish were exported
from Miramichi : — herrings, 3,728 barrels ; alewives, 7,130
barrels; pickled salmon, 396 barrels ; pickled bass, 113
barrels; shad, 45 barrels ; oysters, 200 barrels; eels, 21
barrels ; salted trout, 7 barrels ; mackerel, 167 barrels ;
162,500 pounds of preserved salmon; 29,000 pounds pre-
served lobsters.
The Tabusintac, a river about sixty miles long, enters
I
l\\
i!;!3
iiii^i
i'{!!i"
i
0S2
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
the gulf, a few miles to the northward of the Miramichi.
The tide flows up it twenty miles ; but it has only eight
feet, at low water, on the bar at its entrance, near which
the sea-fisheries are prosecuted to some extent. There is
much good land on the Tabusintac yet vacant.
Of late years much attention has been given to farming
in Northumberland, with favorable results. In 1851, this
county produced 30,854 bushels of wheat; 120,366 bushels
of oats ; and 289,436" bushels of potatoes ; besides other
crops of grain and roots. In the same year 202,637 pounds
of butter were made in the county, and 5,381 pounds of
maple sugar. There are thirty-two places of worship in
this county, and 2,116 inhabited houses.
Kent. — This county was formerly part of Northumber-
land, of which it formed the south-eastern corner. It has
a large frontage on the gulf, extending from the northern
point of Shediac Harbor to Point Escuminac, at the en-
trance to the Miramichi,
Kent contains 1,026,000 acres, of which 386,398 acres
are granted, and 640,002 acres are still vacant. The quan-
tity of cleared land. is 35,496 acres. The population in
1851 was 11,410 souls, little more than one soul to each
hundred acres in the county. The inhabitants follow lum-
bering, fishing, farming, and ship-building. There are
six parishes — Carleton, Dundas, Harcourt, Richibucto,
"VVeldford, and Wellington. The shire town is Richibucto,
a seaport on the left bank of the Richibucto River, built
chiefly along the water side, with wharves, warehouses,
and timber-ponds in front. In 1853, one hundred and
eight vessels, of the burden of 15,189 tons, entered at this
port. There was formerly twelve to fifteen feet on the bar
at low water, but it h^s of late shoaled considerably, owing
to a new channel having broken out ; measures have, how-
ever, been taken to deepen the main channel, and improve
the entrance. The tide rises in Richibucto harbor two
and a half to four feet.
The Harbor of Buctouche is twenty miles soutli of Richi-
i ^1
Kf
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
G33
es south of RicW-
bucto. This harbor is at the mouth of Great and Little
Buctouche rivers ; the entrance, between two low sund
beaches, is narrow. The tides rise and fall two to four
feet ; and vessels, drawing thirteen and a half feet, can cross
the bar at ordinary tides. Outside the bar, there is in-
stantly three fathoms water, deepening gradually seaward.
Inside the bar there is two and a half to five fathoms, the
loading place at the bridge, where vessels lie in nine fath-
oms water. The Big Buctouche is forty miles in length ;
the tide flows up it thirteen miles. The Little Buctouche
is thirty -five miles in length, and the tide flows up it ten
miles. There is much good land, and some fine farms on
both these rivers. In 1853, thirty-seven vessels, of the
burden of 4,323 tons, arrived at this port.
The Harbor of Cocagne, by the coast, is nine miles south
of Buctouche. This is also a bar harbor ; in ordinary tides
there is nine feet on the bar at low water, and fourteen
feet at high water ; at spring tides there are two feet more.
Within, there is a large sheet of water, well sheltered.
The tide flows seven miles up the Cocagne River ; the land
on its banks is of good quality for settlement.
There is scarcely a hill of any magnitude in the whole
county of Kent, and it may be described as the most level
county in the province. Being wholly within the forma-
tion described as the coal measures, it consists altogether
of gentle undulations and long swells of country, covered
with the finest timber, chiefly hardwood. The maple
abounds; and 44,154 pounds of maple sugar were made in
1851. In the same year, 83,171 pounds of butter were
made in the county.
Westmorland. — This county has a large extent of low
sandy coast, on the Straits of Northumberland, extending
from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Bale Verte, to the
northern point of Shediac Harbor. On the south-west it
is bounded by the Peticodiac River and county of Albert ;
and on the west by King's and Queen's counties. It pos-
sesses great agricultural capabilities, besides many facilities
114
I't,
r-^,'
.>' 4
'If
/ • ' :
; J ! ' I ;
'' ' "'-■?" '"' f
. ; ^ M'
.' n^i ^
iiijnU*
ii
III
\
t
1P1
— ^^ 1 '■ 1^
634.
DESCRIITION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
for lumbering, fishing, und ship-building, in addition to its
mines and quarries.
Westmorland contains 878,440 acres, of which 577,440
acres are granted, and 301,000 acres are vacant. The cleared
hind amounts to 92,822 acres. The population in 1851
was 17,814 souls, dwelling in 2,390 houses. There are
seven parishes — Botsford, Dorchester, Moncton, Sackville,
Salisbury, Shediac, and Westmorland. The shire-town is
Dorciiester, a rural village about one mile from the eastern
bank of the Peticodiac liiver.
The Harbor of Shediac, 'n the gulf shore, is by tho coast,
ten miles south of Cocagii Its entrance, at the southern
end of Shediac Island, is ih ititude :G° 15' 15" north, and
longitude 64® 32' 10" west. The longitude in time is 4h.
18 min. 8.40 seconds ; the variation of the compass, 19**
west. During the summer solstice^ the time of high water,
at the Adl and change of the moon, is 7 a. m. ; at and dur-
ing tiio winter solstice, at 12 noon; neap tides rise two
feet, and spring tides four feet. In the fair-way, or ship-
channel, at the distance of two-and a half miles from the
harbor, twenty-five feet water is found, which is continued,
with little variation, up to the entrance. From thence
there is nineteen feet in the channel, gradually lessening,
until at the anchorage oif Point Du Chene, where sixteen
and a half feet is found, at one-third of a mile from the
shore. Two small rivers, the Shediac and the Scadouc,
fall into this harbor. In 1853, two hundred and twenty-
two vessels, of the burden of 21,226 tons, entered at Sche-
diac. The terminus of the railway from St. John is near
the entrance to this harbor, whence communication may
be had, by steamers and sailing vessels, with Prince Ed-
ward Island, thirty-six miles distant, and all other parts
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as also the Great Lakes of
Canada by the River St. Lawrence and its canals. It is
therefore quite certain to become a place of much trade
and business.
Aboushagan and Tedish are boat harbors^ to the east-
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
63i
ward of Shediac, between that harbor and Cape BauM
At Aboushagan there is live feet water on llie bar, with
good sand beaches near the entrance. Tedish bar is dry
at low water, but there is a fine sand beach, on which boats
are easily drawn up.
The harbors of Big and Little Shemogue are between
Cape Bauld and Cape Tormentine. 13ig Shemogue is a
good harbor for vessels of all sizes, up to 130 tons. At
ordinary tides there is ten feet on the bar at high water,
with a channel fifty fathoms wide. Inside, the harbor is
capable of containing one hundred vessels, with anchorage
in two and a half fathoms, well sheltered. Ship-building
is prosecuted in this harbor, near which the best ship
timber is said to be abundant. Little Shemogue is about
three miles east of its larger namesake, but is only a boat-
harbor, with two feet water on its bar.
Westmorland has the advantage of cc-cral shipping
ports on the Bay of Fundy, within Cumberland Basin, and
along the Peticodiac River; from each of these there is
considerable coasting and foreign trade. In 1853, eighteen
vessels, of 1,328 tons, entered at Sackville ; ten vessels, oC
771 tons, entered at Dorchester ; and twenty-one vessels,
of 1,64:6 tons, entered at Moncton. Vessels of all sizes, up
to 1,000 tons, are built at each of these places.
The rise and fall of tide on the shores of Westmorland,
within Cumberland Basin, and up the river Peticodiac, are
very great. At Dorchester Island, near the mouth of the
Peticodiac river, an ordinary tide rises thirty- six feet, and
spring tides forty-eight feet. The tide rushes up this river
with great velocity, and with a tidal wave, usually called
" the bore," which at spring tides is five or six feet high.
At Moncton, usually called the Bend, because it is situated
at the point where the river, which flows thence in an
easterly course, turns suddenly, almost at a right angle,
and flows to the southward, an ordinary tide rises forty-
eight feet, ^nd spring tides fifty-seven feet. Moncton is a
thriving village, its population increasing rapidly in con-
^i
Mi
f
. iil
lii
%i
' f,
i^y
I'
; Jt
:n
636
DESCRII'TION OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES.
sequence of the operations for establishing railway eom-
niunication with the Gulf at Shediac, and witli the city of
St. John, A bank has been established there recently,
for facilitatinr^ extensive business transactions, and this
flourishinji; place bids fair to become an entrepot for trade
with the northern counties, Prince Edward Island, and the
Gulf of St. Lawrence generally.
The fertile marshes and uplands of Westmorland are
well adapted for grazing purposes. In 1851, 322,335
pounds of butter were made. In the same year, this
county, with other crops, produced 33,037 rons of hay;
145,396 bushels of oats ; and 282,224: bushels of potatoes.
Tlie quantity of maple sugar made was 43,485 pounds.
Albert. — This county lies south and west of the River
Peticodiac, with the Bay of Fundy in front, and abutting
westwardly on St. John aiid King's counties. It was for-
merly part of Westmorland, from wliich it was separated
in 1845.
Albert contains 433,560 acres, of which 233,700 acres
are granted, and 199,860 acres are still vacant. There are
32,210 acres of cleared land. The population in 1851 was
6,313 souls. There is much good land in this county, and
itrt diked marshes are extensive. A largo proj)ortion of
the vacant land is of good quality, well adapted for settle-
ment and cultivation. Besides its agricultm-al capabilities,
Albert county possesses valuable resources iu its forests,
its mines, and its fisheries.
There are five parishes in this county — Coverdale, Elgin,
IlutVey, IIillsl)orough, and Ilopeweil, The shire-town is
at Hillsborough, on the western batdc of the Peticodiac
River. Shipments take place at Hillsborough and Harvey,
and at the former place ship-building is prosecuted. In
1853, thirteen vessels, of 1,401 ton3, entcied at Harvey;
and sixty-seven vessels, of 11,377 tons, entered at Hills-
borough. These vessels carried the various products of
this country to places abroad ; and there were many coast-
ers also employed in carrying produce to the port of St.
DESCKII'TION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
637
Jolin. In 1851, there were 142,137 pounds of butter made
in Albert, and 62,235 pounds of maple sugar.
Saint John. — This county consists of a narrow strip of
land, stretching for nearly ninety miles along the shores of
tlie Bay of Fundy, with Albert county on the east, Cliar-
lotte county on the west, and King's county to the north-
ward. It contains 414,720 acres, of which 309,147 acres
are granted, and 105,573 acres are still vacant, chiefly at
tlie eastern and western extremes of the county. Its
population, in 1851, was 38,475 souls.
There are five parishes in this county — Lancaster, Port-
land, St. John, St. Martins, and Simonds. The city of
Saint John is the shire town; it contained, in 1851, a
population of 22,745 souls, and the parish of Portland, its
suburb, contained 8,429 souls, making togeth^A; 31,174
souls. At the present time (1854) the population of St.
John and Portland may be estimated at 35,000 souls.
Altliough this county cannot boast of its agricultural
capabilities, yet in 1851 it produced, with other crops,
0,855 tons of hay, 30,961 bushels of oats, 9,758 bushels of
buckwheat, 34,438 bushels of turnips, and 105,695 bushels
of potatoes. In the same year, 102,716 pounds of butter
were made, and 12,960 casks of lime were burned.
The city of Saint John was established by Royal Char-
ter in 1785, and is now divided into seven vvards. Of
these, five are on the eastern side of the harbor; the other
two are on the western side, and constitute that part of the
city usually called Carleton. The city government, or
connnon cou.icil, consists of a mayor and recorder, with an
alderman and councillor from each ward. The mayor,
aldermen, and councillors are elected annually by the
citizens and freeholders; the recorder is appointed by the
crown. All British subjects may become citizens on j;ay-
ing certain fees, amounting to about £5 sterling ; but sons
of citizens, born in the city, and those who have served an
apprenticeship in it, become citizens at twenty-one years
of age, on payment of about £1 sterling.
i U-M
m •'
638 DESCtlPTTON OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
In 1851, there were 3,885 inhabited houses in tlie city,
and 133 in course of erection. The number of stores,
barns, and outhouses was tlien 2,397 ; these numbers have
considerably increased since 1851. There are many good
buildings of brick and stone, especially in the business part
of the city, where none others are now allowed to be built.
The tide rises twenty-one to twenty-three feet at ordinary
tides, and twenty -three to twenty -five feet at spring tides.
At full and change of the moon, it is high water at eleven
hours forty-four minutes. There is good anchorage within
the harbor in ten to seventy fathoms water. Owing to the
tide-falls a1 the head of this harbor it is never frozen, or in
any way inrpeded by ice during the winter; vessels arrive
and depart every day during the year. Its latitude is
45° 15' north, longitude 05° 3' 36" west; variation of the
compass, 16° 30' west.
The position of St. John harbor, at the mouth of a large
river with numerous tributaries, and its entire freedom
from obstruction by ice, give it great advan^-iges over all
the northern ports in North America, and render it almost
certain of becon,iing a place of much commercial impor-
tance. The existing trade and commerce of the port, with
its steady increase, will be best understood by the following
BtateiMcnt of the numbers and tonnage of vessels entered
inwards, and cleared outwards, during six years.
No. Tons.
1850— -Inwards 1,695 260,429
Outwards 1,720 284,793
1851— Inwards 1,528 282,560
Outwards 1,515 a24,821
18M— Inwards 1,740 334,207
Outwards 1,746 302,917
1853— Inwards 2,1 17 400,216
Outwards 2,106 400,216
1854— Inwards 1,9 '^ 353,000
Outwards 1,990 405,812
1855— Inwards 1,886 367,521
Outwards 1,870 420,624
The amount of ship-building and the value of the fishing
in the harbor of ^t. John, have been already stated under
TIES.
in the city,
BY of stores,
jinbers have
many good
nisiness part
, to be bnilt.
at ordinary
spring tides.
ter at eleven
oragc within
Owing to the
frozen, or in
vessels arrive
ts latitude is
riation of the
nth of a large
itire freedom
<■ aires over all
nder it almost
lerelal iinpor-
the port, with
• the following
Bssels entered
ears.
Tons.
260,429
284,793
282,566
324,821
334,267
362,917
400,216
400,216
353,060
405,812
307,521
420,624
B of the fishing
y Btated under
DE8CKIPTI0N OF THE PROVINCE Bf COUNTIES.
639
those heads. In the city and county of St. John, there
were in 1851, fifty-one saw-mills, employing 803 men ;
fourteen grist-mills ; seventeen tanneries , six foundries ;
four breweries ; and sixty-one other factories, giving em-
ployment to 1,120 men. The numerous ship-yards, and
the large quantities of deals and timber continually ex-
ported, afford much profitable employment for labor.
There are three banks in the city of St. John — the Bank
of New Brunswick, with a capital of £100,000 currency ;
the Commercial Bank of Kew Brunswick, with a capital
of £150,000 currency, and a branch of the Bank of British
North America, established in London, with a ca}>ital of
£1,000,000 sterling.
By means of the electric telegraph, St. John is in imme-
diate communication with Nova Scotia and Canada, and
with all parts of the United States to which the telegraph
has been extended. A railway from the harbor of St. John
to Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of 114
miles, is now in course of construction. It is proposed to
extend this railway to the Nova Scotia boundary near Baio
Yerte, to meet the railway now being built from Halifax
to that point; and also northwardly from Shediac to Mira-
michi, and to the St. Lawrence and Trois Pistoles, there
to connect with the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and
60 with the Great Lakes and the far west. Another line
of railway is also contemplated from the city of St. John,
westwardly, to the frontier of the United States at Calais,
by which connection will be had with the whole railwKy
system of the United States. From this line it is proposed
to construct a branch northwardly to Frederickton, and
thence up the valley of the St. John, to give greater facili-
ties for traftic, especially in winter.
At present, consLont communication is maintained with
Portland and Boston by first-claas steamers. The time
from St. John to Portland by steamer, and thence by rail-
way, either to Montreal or Quebec, is abo it thirty-five
hours — to Boston thirty hours.
■■!■ ^
u
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i
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y\:\
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640
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
Tlie city of St. John is lighted with gas and supplied
with water by iron pipes, from a reservoir about four miles
from the city. These water-works are to be immediately
extended, so as to give every part of the city an ample
supply of pure water.
Oharlotie County. — ^This county occupies the south-
west corner of New Brunswick, and is nearly square in
form. Its front on the Bay of Fundy extends from Point
Lepreaux to the St. Croix River, which is the boundary of
the United States in that direction. Charlotte county con-
tains 783,360 acres, of which 317,245 acres are granted,
and the remaining 466,115 acres are yet vacant. The
quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 45,656 acres, or
about ouc-scventh part of the quantity granted. The
population of the county in 1851, was 19,938 souls, chiefly
engaged in fishing, farming, lumbering, and ship-building.
There are ten parishes in Charlotte — Campo Bello (an
island), Grand Manan (also an island), Pennfield, St. An-
drews, St. David, St. George, St. James, St. Patrick, St.
Stephen, and West Isles (a group of islands). The shire
town is St. Andrews, which is pleasantly situated on a
point of land between the St. Croix (or Schoodic) River, and
the inner Bay of Passamaquoddy, on an easy slope, with a
southern aspect. The parish of St. Andrews has a popu-
lation of 3,910 souls. From the harbor of St. Andrews a
railroad has been projected, which is at present in course
of construction, toward Woodstock on the River St. John,
a distance of about ninety railes. Of this railway, twenty-
six miles are now^ completed and open for traffic ; and the
intention is^ after reaching Woodstock, to continue the
line by the valley of the St. John, to the River St. Law-
rence, and thence to Quebec.
The St. Croix is a large river, flowing from two chains of
lakes, widely spread over a tract of country which has long
furnished, and still continues to furnish, extensive supplies
of timber. It is navigable to the head of the tide at St.
Stephen, which is about 16 miles above St. Andrews. St.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES.
641
Stephen and Milltown are two thriving villager on t]»e St.
Croix, chiefly supported by the saw-mills in their vicinity,
and the tratiic in sawed lumber of every (lescrij»tion.
The Digdeguash and the Magaguadavic are t wocctiinider-
able riveio falling into the Bay of Pai^samacj noddy, totiie
eastward of St. Andrews. There are saw-mill. >n each of
these rivers, and ships load with lumber at their mouths, as
also at the entrance to Lepreaux River, in Mace's liay, at
the eastern extreme of this county. The fisheries of Grand
Manan, Campo Bello, and West Isles, have already been
mentioned. All vessels which enter and clear at the various
harbors and loading places in Charlotte county, are enu-
merated as entering and clearing at the port of St.
Andrews. The following is a statement of their numbers,
tonnage, and men, during six years, distinguishing coun-
tries : —
VESSELS INWARDS.
'«!
United
Kritish
United
Foreign
Totals.
E
Kingdum.
Colonies.
(
States.
States.
No.
10
Tons.
No.
G(!
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
Men.
1849
2,430
2,887
613
52,001
1
230
690
57,548
2,681
1850
12
3,437
84
5,475
634
63,531
2
250
732
72,693
3,851
1851
15
4,985
92
8,168
694
75,407
4
1,137
805
89,597
4,725
1852
9
3,916
57
4,262
675
81,693
2
424
743
89,845
4,322
1853
13
3, 7 GO
91
G,029
733
88,950
0
1,159
843
99,898
4,881
1854
8
2,882
55
4,586
716
110,958
3
1,318
782
119,744
5,115
1855
788
I ''7 689
5,516
VESSELS OUTWARDS.
t
r.
o
United
Kingdom.
British
Colonies.
U*Ued
SUtM
Foreign
States.
Totals.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Toist.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
M n.
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1865
50
59
85
94
88
121
17,548
24,044
34,191
42,846
47,558
63,340
8G
97
124
59
86
48
6,861
6,553
7,430
4,246
5,654
3,810
503
504
611
666
629
611
36,794
40,594
41,332
44,073
47,978
66,496
2
1
a
3
1
492
167
200
211'
641
GGl
722
VM
61,605
71,358
8.3,317
91,365
) 01.402
1 o !, o .1 r.
2,829
3,867
4,274
4,334
4,909
7^*_\\.\/^xWsv^«).'4
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612
T>ESCEIPnON OF THE PROVINCE BY COmTTIES.
» There is abundance of both lime and marl in the county
of Charlotte, as well as sea manure, and in those respects
it possesses advantages over most other counties in the prov-
ince. By the census of 1851, it appears the crops of that
year were as follows: — hay, 17,076 tons; wheat, 3,203
bushels; barley, 7,206 bushels; oats, 69,988 bushels; buck-
wheat, 14,304 bushels; peas and beans, 1,999 bushels;
turnips, 72,419 bushels; potatoes, 163,117 bushels. The
quantity of butter made during the year, was 441,522
pounds ; of maple sugar, 700 pounds : of lime burned,
15,100 casks.
This county may be described as a hilly country, with a
rocky sea-coast studded with islands, everywhere indent-
ed with excellent harbors, and the neighboring waters
abounding with lish. Numerous rivers and large lakes in-
tersect the interior in every direction, and in the valleys
and basins of these rivers and lakes, there is much good
land. The quantity of available water power is wonder-
fully great, and in many places it yet remains to be turned
to profitable account.
Kino's County. — This is an inland county, lying north
of St. John, abutting westwardly upon Charlotte county,
and widening to the eastward, where it is bounded by the
counties of Albert and Westmorland. It contains 840,-
920 acres, of which 662,752 acres are granted, and only
187,168 acres are vacant. The quantity of cleared land
in 1851, was 120,923 acres, and its population, 18,842
souls.
King's county is divided into two parts by the River St.
John, which passes across it from north to south. The
eastern part is intersected by the River Kennebecasis,
which passes through it from north-east to south-west, and
renders much of tiuvt portion accessible by water. The
western part of this county, on both sides of the St. Jolin,
is hilly and dotted with numerous small lakes ; while the
eastern portion, stretching towards the sandstones of the
coal measures, and embracing the lower carboniferous
JTriES.
n the county
liose respects
;s in the prov-
crops of that
wheat, 3,203
lushels; huck-
,999 hiishels;
bushels. The
was 441,522
lime burned,
ountry, with a
where indent-
borinii; waters
[ large lakes in-
in the valleys
3 is much good
rer is wonder-
ns to be turned
ty, lying north
arlotte county,
)ounded by the
contains 840,-
mted, and only
)f cleared land
ulation, 18,842
)y the Elver St.
to south. The
r Ivennebecasis,
south-west, and
by water. The
of the St. John,
akes ; while the
mdstones of the
3r carboniferous
1
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i
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r<BKfii
f^ji
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DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
643
rocks, consists of long swells of land, hills of gentle ele-
vation and rounded summits, with level and fertile valleys
between, often of considerable extent and much picturesque
beauty.
There are nine parishes in this county, thus designated
— Greenwich, Kingston, Hampton, Norton, Springfield,
Studholm, Sussex, Upham, and Westfield. The shire
town is in Kingston, between the Kennebecasis River and
Bellisle Bay. The village of Hampton is a thriving place,
twenty-five miles from the city of St. John, on tlie Ken-
nebecasis River. The tide flows up this river five miles
beyond Ilamptcn, buc up to the village the river is navi-
gable for small vessels and steamers. As this village will
soon be connected with St. John, by the Shediac railway,
it will, undoubtedly, become a place of great resort, and
a favorite spot for summer residences. The rides and drives
in its vicinity are varied and beautiful, and the country, with
its numerous lakes and streams, possesses many attractions
for the sportsman.
King's is essentially an agricultural county ; the crops
of 1851 are thus stated in the census of that year : — hay,
38,811 tons ; wheat, 14,895 bushels ; barley, 5,427 bushels ;
oats, 178,968 bushels ; buckwheat, 206,251 bushels ; In-
dian corn, 2.968 bushels ; peas and beans, 4,210 bushels ;
turnips, 84,359 bushels ; potatoes, 303,568 bushels ; other
roots, 9,142 bushels. There were then in the county, 18,-
295 head of neat cattle ; 8,463 cows ; 2,988 horses ; and
30,235 sheep. The quantity of butter made in 1851, was
506,292 pounds ; and of maple sugar, 37,801 pounds. The
number of saw-mills was seventy-five ; of grist-mills,
forty-six; with seventeen tanneries, and eleven carding and
weaving establishments. Apples are found to thrive well'
in this county, and much attention is now being paid to
the growth of that description of fruit.
The facilities of access, both by land and water, from
every part of King's county to the harbor of St. John,
and a ready market there, give great advantages to the far-
41
4
' in
rif
m
mi
644
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
mers of this county, and render their pursuits in general
very profitable.
Queen's County. — This county lies north-westerly of
Kinj^'s county, and between it and Snnbury, being
bounded by Charlotte on the south-west, and by West-
morland, Kent, and Northumberland at its north-eastern
extremity. It contains 961,280 acres, of which 514,204
acres are granted, and 444,076 acres are still vacant. The
quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 63,719 acres, and
the population, 10,634 souls.
Queen's county is also divided into two portions by the
river St. John, which crosses it from north to south. The
largest part, east of the St. John, comprises within its
bounds those two large lakes, the Washademoak and the
Grand Lake, with several smaller lakes, and the numerous
tributaries by which they are fed. Tliat part of the county
west of the St. John, is generally broken and hilly, yet
there are in this district many tracts of good land. The
portion east of the St. John rests almost entirely upon the
sandstones of the coal measures, and its prevailing charac-
teristic is that of a low and level country. Along the St.
John, there are extensive meadows and large flat islands,
formed by alluvial deposits ; these possess great fertility,
of p,n enduring character, from their being overflowed
every spring, and thus annually receiving a fresh deposit
of rich alluvium.
The inhabitants of Queen's county are chiefly engaged
in agricultural pursuits, for which the country is well
adapted ; but some of them follow lumbering, and others
are employed in raising coals, at various localities near the
Grand Lake.
The crops of 1851 are thu« stated: hay, 22,556 tons;
wheat, 7,222 bushels ; oats, 97, 359 bushels ; buckwheat,
89,475 bushels ; Indian corn, 8,507 bushels ; peas and
beans, 2,771 bushels ; turnips, 28,925 bushels ; potatoes,
168,656 bushels. The number of neat cattle, 10,612 ; cows,
4,710; horses, 1,514; sheep, 16,040. The quantity of
^ J
m-;\
fUTIES.
its in general
h-wcsterly of
nbury, being
and by West-
, north-eastern
vbich 514,204
II vacant. The
fl9 acres, and
portions by the
to sonth. The
rises within its
emoak and the
d the nuincrous
rt of the county
and hilly, yet
;ood land. The
[itirely upon the
evailing cliarac-
Along the St.
irge flat islands,
s great fertility,
eing overflowed
(T a fresh deposit
chiefly engaged
country is well
Bring, and others
ocalities near the
ay, 22,556 tons;
lels ; buckwheat,
isliels; peas
and
)U8hels; potatoes,
;tle, 10,612 ; cows.
The (quantity of
DESOUII'TIOX OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
645
butter made, 242,342 pounds ; of maple sugar, 5,587
pounds. There were then 24 saw-mills ; 28 grist-mills ; 8
tanneries, and 6 carding and weaving establishments, with
454 hand looms in the county, at which 59,283 yards of
cloth were made.
Queen's county is divided into nine parishes, thus named
— Brunswick, Canning, Chipman, Gagetown, Ilampstead,
Johnston, Petersville, Waterborough, and Wickhara.
Gagetown, a pleasant village, about tifty miles from the
sea, is the shire town. It is situated upon Gagetown creek,
a short distance from the River St. John, on a fine swell
of land, sloping easily to the water's edge, and may be
reached by vessels and steamers of large class.
The large navigable lake and streams of this county
furnish great facilities for the transport of agricultural
produce to the port of St. John, and render it easily acces-
sible from the sea in every part, except at its southwest-
ern and north-eastern extremities.
SuNBURY. — This county is of equal breadth throughout,
and lies north-westerly of Queen's, between it and York
county, with its south-western end abutting upon Char-
lotte, and its north-eastern extreme bounded by Northum-
berland.
Before New Brunswick was erected into a separate
province, it constituted a county of Nova Scotia, known
as " Sunbury ;" and now Sunbury is diminished to one of
the smallest counties in New Brunswick. It contains only
782,080 acres, of which 377,078 acres are granted, and
405,002 acres are yet vacant. The quantity of cleared
land in 1851 was 15,587 acres only, and the population,
6,301 souls.
Sunbury county is divided into five parishes, thus desig-
nated— Blissville, Burton, Lincoln, Maugerville, and Shef-
field. The shire town is in Burton, on the west bank of
the St, John. The county ip divided into two nearly equal
portions by the River St. John ; the western portion con-
Bists chiefly of long swells of land and rounded hills of
)
^ ..---S-lil-j^
Lfc'* ■
646
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY CClUNTIES.
bushels ,
bushels ;
butihels.
little elevation, while that part east of the St. John id very
low and level, resting almost wholly on the gray and other
sandstones of the coal formation. Along the St. John
there are large tracts of alluvii.1 land, as in Queen's county
and in the river several large islands of exceeding fertility,
whicii are flooded nearly every year, and produce large
quantities of excellent hay. Lumbering is prosecuted to
iome extent, but Sunbury may be classed as an agricultu-
ral county.
The crops of 1851 are thus stated: hay, 10,069 tons;
wheat, 5,551 bushels ; barley, ft73 bushels ; oats, 40,024
bushels; buckwheat, 21,911 bushels; Indian corn, 7,170
peas and beans, 1,378 bushels ; turnips, 17,348
potatoes, 116,357 bushels ; other roots, 2,682
The number of neat cattle was 4,475 ; of cows,
2,125, and of sheep, 6,688. The quantity of butter made
was 105,704 pounds, and of maple sugar, 1574 pounds.
The only village in this county is Oromocto, situate on
the right bank of the St. John, at the mouth of the river
of that name, about seventy miles from the sea. The Oro-
mocto, as its name implies, is a "deep river," and ship-
building is prosecuted on its banks to some extent; vessels
up to 1,300 tons burden being built there, and sent down
tlifc St. John to sea. Ship timber of good quality and large
size, especially hackmatack (larch), abounds in Sunbury.
Large quantities ai*e sent down the St. Jum, besides afford-
ing facilities for ship-building in the county. Bituminous
coals are found in Sunbury, but hitherto no mines have
been opened or worked.
York. — This is a large county, occupying a central po-
sition in the province, and lying across it diagonally. It
is bounded by Charlotte county and the frontier of the
United States on the south and west, and by Northumber-
land on the north-east ; the River St. John flows across it
from west to east, and divides it into two unequal portions.
Its geological character is greatly varied ; the country is
diversified with hills and valleys, and intersetited by nu
SKy
DESCRIPTION OF THE riiOVLN'CE BY C0DNTIE8. 647
merous lakes and streams. Along the latter there are
many tracts, or " bottoms," of rich alluvial soil, and the
mils in general are not deficient in fertility, even to their
Bummits.
York county contains 2,201,000 acres, of which 970,914
&,c\ps are granted, and the remaining 1,230,080 acres are
still vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was
69,017 acres, and the population, 17,018 souls. There are
ten parishes in this county, thus designated — Douglas,
Dumfries, Fredericton, Kingsclear, New Maryland, Prince
William, Queensbury, Saint Mary's, Southampton, and
Stanley. The shire town is the city of Fredericton ; with
its environs, constituting the parish of that name, it con-
tained in 1851, 4,458 inhabitants. This city is the seat of
government in New Brunswick ; it is situate on the right
bank of the St. John, at eighty-four miles distance from
the Bay of Fundy, and the river is navigable up to this
point for large steamers and the smaller class of sea-going
vessels. The town is pleasantly situated on a level plain,
consisting of diluvial sand and gravel, several feet higher
than the alluvial inter v^ales along the river. It is bounded
in front by a wide sweep of the River St. John, which is
here three-quarters of a mile wide, and in tlie rear by a
'dnge of hills, moderately elevated, which rise directly
from tli(i plain. The streets are wide and airy; they are
perfectly straight, and cross each other at right angles ; the
cultivation of gardens, and the planting of ornamental
trees, have added greatly to the bcuity of the situation.
The lieutenant-governo*' of the province resides at
Fredericton, in a large stone building known as Govern-
ment House. In the Province building, which is of wood,
the Provincial Legislature holds its sittings, and the Su-
preme Court also meets there. The Crown Land Office,
and other public offices, are in clo^e proximity to the Prov-
ince building. King's College is a substantial stone
building, 170 feet long and sixty feet wide, standing on the
hill in the rear of Fredericton ; from it there is a very fiu©
: '.
i I
G48
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
'*'4"
\ Ji
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H.
1^^
view of the river and tlie adjacent country. Tliere are
barracks in the city, near the river, with sufticient accom-
modation for a regiment of infantry. The city has been
incorporated but a few years ; its affairs are managed in
St. John, by a mayor, aldermen, and councillors, elected
by the citizens and ratepayers. The Central Bank, located
at this place, with a paid-up capital of £35,000, gives facili-
ties for business, and from its position, there is much trade
carried on from Fredericton with the upper country. Al-
together, it is a thriving place, which will steadily increase
with the settlement and improvement of the country.
York is an agricnltural county, although lumbering is
pursued within its limits to a large extent. The crops of
1851 are thus stated : — hay, 26,430 tons ; wheat, 16,142
bushels ; barley, 4,539 bushels ; oats, 205,343 bushels ; buck-
wlieat, '62,765 bushels ; Indian corn, 18,178 bushels ; peas
and beans, 6,842 bushels ; turnips, 44,616 bushels ; pota-
toes, 233,695 bushels ; other roots, 6,524 bushels. The
number of neat cattle was 11,594 ; of cows, 5,705 ; of
horses, 2,440 ; of sheep, 16,734. The quantity of butter
made was 447,395 pounds ; of maple sugar, 31,077 pounds.
There were then thirty-live saw-mills ; thirty-one grist-
mills ; eleven tanneries ; five carding and weaving estab-
lishments ; with 477 hand looms in the county, at which
70,936 yards of cloth were made.
Two very striking instances of success attending the
formation of new settlements in the wilderness, by associ-
ations of settlers, can be adduced in this county. The
Harvey settlement was formed m 1887, by a party of immi-
grants from the north of England, who landed in the prov-
ince in a very destitute condition. The teetotal settlement
was formed in 1842, by a party ot destitute immigrants from
the south of Ireland. Both these settlements are nov;' in the
most prosperous and thriving condition; many of the settlers,
v;ho at the outset were in actual want, are now possessed of
largo and valuable farms, while some have become posi-
tively wealthy. These persons were assisted, iu the first
111
mm
liti
I •
ITIE8.
Tliere are
cient accom-
Aty has been
1 an aged in
llors, elected
Bank, located
, gives facili-
is much trade
ountry. Al-
adily increase
country,
lumbering is
The crops of
wheat, 16,142
bushels; buck-
bushels ; peas
(ushels; pota-
bushels. The
^vs, 5,705 ; of
tity of butter
31,077 pounds,
lirty-one grist-
weaving estab-
mty, at which
attending the
less, by associ-
county. The
party of immi-
ed in the prov-
otal settlement
timigrants from
sare nov/inthe
Y of the settlerb,
)w possessed of
3 become posi-
;ed, iu the firat
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
G49
instance, by boir.g employed to make roads through the
wilderness to their several settlements, for which they were
paid at a reasonable rate. This mode of assistance gave
them not only profitable employment, but enabled thorn to
reach their lands with facility. The experiment was
attended with complete success, and no doubt might be
extended to other parts of the province with the like favor-
able results.
In the north-eastern part of this county, the New Bruns-
wick and Nova Scotia Land Company (incorporated by
Royal Charter, in 1834) holds upwards of half a million
acres of land in one tract. This company has from time
to time expended large sums in making roads, and con-
structing bridges, mills, school-houses, churches, and otfjer
buildings, in order to encourage the settlement of their
territory. Stanley, a thriving village on the River Nash-
waak, was founded by the company ; a good road (ionnects
lliis village with the city of Fredericton. At present, th€
company sells lots of land, up to 300 acres each, at the
rate of four and sixpence currency per acre 'equal to
three and ninepence sterling), payable as follows : — Deposit
on signing agreement to purchase, sixpence currency per
acre. The second year no payment is required ; the third
year and each succeeding year, sixpence currency per acre,
until the whole is paid, without interest. Larger quanti-
ties of land may be purchased by special agreement, as
also improved farms, with buildings; a liberal di^'■ount is
made by the company to those who pay in full at the time
of purchase. Settlements have been established on the
south-west Miramichi, Nashwaak Mactaquack, and Kes-
wick rivers ; the cleared and cultivated land on many of the
farms in these settlements, is from thirty to eighty acres.
Much of the land is represented to be of good quality,
especially near the rivers, and there are several mill-sites
for sale. The company's commissioner resides at Frederic-
ton, and there is an agent at the port of St. John.
Carleton. — ^This county is nearly triangular in form ;
' {iilf
J!
3 :■ .!
650
DESCRIPTION OF TUK PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
it lies north of York, with tlie State of Maine on the west,
York county on the east, and Victoria to the northward.
The River St. Jolin runs nearly through its centre from
north to south ; it contains 700,000 acres, of which
465,802 acres are granted, and 234,198 acres are still
vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was 55,537
acres, and the population, 11,108 souls.
There are seven parishes in Carleton county, as follows:
— Brighton, Kent, Northampton, Simonds, Wakefield,
Wicklow, and Woodstock. The shire town is Woodstock,
a prosperous village on the right bank of the St. John,
about sixty-four miles, by the river, above Fredericton.
Tlie great post road, by the valley of the St. John to
Lower Canada, passes through Woodstock ; and it is at
the extremity of a high road from the town of Houlton,
in the State of Maine, about twelve miles distant, on which
there is much traffic. From the rapidity of the current,
transportation downward on the River St. John is quite
easy. Steamers of light draught ply regularly during the
summer, from Fredericton to Woodstock, except when the
water in the river is very low ; but such improvements are
now being made in the navigation between these places,
that steamers will be enabled to ply more frequently than
heretofore. Being surrounded by a fine agricultural
country, the steady advancement of Woodstock is quite
certain.
There is much alluvial land of excellent quality along
the St. John, and its tributaries, in this county, and the
upland is generally very good, producing large crops of
grain and vegetables, besides being well adapted to horti-
culture. The crops of 1851 are thus stated : — hay, 15,718
tons; wheat, 21,165 bushels; barley, 8,512 bushels; oats,
234,628 bushels; buckwheat, 131,482 bushels; Indian
corn, 14,650 bushels; peas and beans, 7,163 bushels;
turnips, 73,506 bushels : potatoes, 174,416 bushels ; other
roots, 2,235 bushels. The number of neat cattle in that
year was 8,072; of cows, 4,026; of sheep, 14,361. The
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES.
651
quantity of butter made was 237,l'r2 pounds ; of maplo
Bugar, 37,520 pounds ; of iron smelted, 770 tons ; and of
lime burned, 840 casks.
The completion of tlie railway from St. xVndrews to
"Woodstock, by giving ready access to the sea at all sea-
sons, will throw open the resources of this county in
timber and iron, and rapidly develop its great agricul-
tural capabilities.
Victoria. — Next to Nortlmmborland, this is the largest
county in the province. It ccjmprises all the land on the
St. John and its tributaries, above Carleton county, which
belongs to New Brunswick, and a large portion of terii-
tory watered by the upper tributaries of the Restigouche.
It is bounded by the State of Maine on the west, by
Canada to the north, and by the counties of Northumber-
land and Restigouche on the east.
Victoria contains 2,872,000 acres, of which only 345,-
600 acres are granted ; the remaining 2,526,400 acres are
6till vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was
but 26,834 acres, and the population 5,408 souls.
The ranges of high land which cross this county, are
generally of the primitive rocks ; bold and rugged in their
outlines, they give the country a wild and romantic aspect.
But although much of the surface is elevated, and rises
into lofty eminences, there are not many abrupt precipices,
and in general the slopes are not too steep for cultivation.
Alono; the St. John, the belts of alluvial land become
more and more narrow ; but there are terraces along the
whole course of the river, composed of successive deposits
of alluvium, sometimes consisting of five different steps,
indicating that number of changes in the level of the
Btream.
There are six parishes in Victoria, thus designated —
Andover, Madawaska, Perth, Saint Basil, Saint Francis,
and Saint Leonard. The sliire town is Colebrooke, a vil-
lage situate at the Grand Falls of the St. John, which are
about 200 miles from the sea. A sudden tuiu in the river
Mil ''
^:l
M*'
ii «! ^ (■
•; *!• ii'l^
652
DESCltlPTION OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES.
at this place, forms a little peninsula, upon which the
villafi^e is placed. The whole waters of the St. John are
precipitated over a ledjije of rocks seventy-four feet in
heiglit, and then rush wildly through a narrow rocky gorge
of three-quarters of a mile, descending in that distance
forty-five feet. The difference of level between the waters
in the basin at the head of the falls, and the waters of the
basin at the foot of the rocky gorge, up to which the |pwer
St. John is navigable for tow-boats, and sometimes for
email steamers, is 119 feet. Squared timber and round h)gs,
from the extensive forests on the upper St. John and its
numerous tributaries, are passed over the falls and down
the rocky gorge, but not without considerable loss and
damage, even under the most favorable circumstances.
All merchandise and supplies for the upper country are
hauled by horses across the portage between the uj)per
and lower basins, and this is attended with great labor and
ex})ense. A railway has been projected to overcome the
difficulties of transit at this point, to be worked by a sta-
tionary steam-engine at the summit level, with inclined-
planes to the water in either direction, and it is believed
that this undertaking, when completed, will be of great
public and private benefit.
The Tobique River, which enters the St. John about
twenty miles below the Grand Falls, is almost wholly
within the county of Victoria. It is a river of large size,
and the land along its valley is reported to be of excel-
lent <piality ; as yet it is in a state of complete wilderness,
a!id almost wholly destitute of settlers. The ledges of red
sandstone, and the cliffs of gypsum, in the valley of the
Tobique, with other rocks of a favorable character, com-
bine to form an admirable soil along the river, exceed-,
ingly well adapted for cultivation. There is here good
land sufficient for a large county, needing only the labor
of men to bring it into profitable cultivation.
In the upper part of Victoria, at the mouth of the
Madawaska river, stands the rising village of Edraundston.
ll
NTIE8.
m which the
St. John are
y-four I'eet in
v rocky gorge
that distance
sen the waters
waters of the
ich the |pwer
sometimes for
nd round h)g8,
John and its
alls and do\s'n
rable loss and
circumstances.
er country are
een the upper
yreat hibor and
overcome the
orked by a sta-
with inclined-
[1 it is believed
ill be of great
5t. John about
almost wholly
er of large size,
to be of exccl-
lete wilderness,
le ledges of red
16 valley of the
character, com-
) river, exceed-.
■8 is here good
only the labor
m.
3 mouth of the
of Edraundston.
DESCRII'TIOX OF THE PROVINCE DY COUNTIES.
653
From its position on the St, John, at the outlet of a navi-
gable river flowing from extensive chains of lakes, ex-
tending to within sixteen miles of the St. Lawrence, and
watering a wide extent of timber country, this village bids
fair to become a place of some importance and consid-
erable trade.
The population of Yictoria is yet too scanty to have
done much towards developing its agricultural capabili-
ties. But considering the large proportion of its inhabi-
tants who are engaged in lumbering, the following return
of the crops of 1851 is worth notice: — hay, 6,9G1 tons;
wheat, 5,262 bushels; barley, 7,979 bushels ; oats, 59,163
bushels ; buckwheat, 44,730 bushels ; Indian corn, 824
bushels; peas and beans, 7,824 bushels; turnips, 9,195
bushels ; potatoes, 84,527 bushels. The quantity of buttei
made in 1851, was 78,467 pounds; of maple sugar, 55,-
6S5 pounds; of gypsum quarried, 4,075 tons.
The Grand River, the Quisibis, and the Green River,
are three considerable streams in this county, flowing into
the St. John from the eastward ; they it 'erlock theResti-
goucho and its upper tributaries, which flow in the 0])po-
site direction. The various streams thus interlaced, drain
a tract of country containing more than a million of acres,
of which very little is known, the whole being yet in a
state of nature, and heretofore visited only by some ex-
ploring lumberman, or an adventurous hunter and trap-
per. The reports of explorers state tli?*^^ there are in this
tract thousands of acres of deep rich soil, covered with
the finest timber, standing more widely apart than is
usual in the forests of New Brunswick, and giving to the
country a park-like character.
i'
THE PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA,
WITH A BRIEF VIEW OF ITS
KESOURCES, NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
CHAPTER I.
DISCOVERY AND EARLY FORTUNES OF NOVA SCOTIA.
Ox the 6th of March, 1496, John Cabot, a Yenetian
mariner, ah^eady somewhat distinguislied for skill and
enterprise, obtained from Henry VII. of England a
patent, in fav^ir of himself and his three sons, to fit out a
small squadron, " for the conquest, discovery, and occupa-
tion of tlie lands beyond the western ocean, inhabited by
heathens and infidels, and till those times unknown to
Christians."
In the early part of May, the following year, this small
squadron, consisting of one larger and three small ships,
sailed from the port of Bristol for the regions of the setting
sun.
On the 2-ith day of June, 1497, they caught the first
glimpse of land in the "Western World. They named the
spot they had first sighted Prima Vista. There is some
doubt as to whether this land which they first sighted
was the coast of Newfoundland, Labrador, or Nova Scotia.
The best authorities, while admitting the doubt, favor
the opinion that it was Nova Scotia. During that and
the following year, John Cabot and his son Sebastian
explored a great part of the coast of North America.
For nearly a century after these discoveries, the English
bestowed hardly any attention on North America.
Newfoundland, on account of its valuable fisheries,
^A SCOTIA.
PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
655
formed tbe only exception. It was visited yearly by the
ships of English merchants, and attempts were made at an
early period to colonize it.
Cape Breton was resorted to by Englishmen, in tlieyear
1590. The earliest attempt to colonize Nova Scotia proper,
was made in the year 1598, by the Marqnis de la Koche,
under the direction of Henry IV. of France. Five years
subsequently, M. De Monts was appointed, by the same
monarch, governor-general of La Nouvelle France^ which
embraced Nova Scotia, and extended from 40 to 54 degrees
north latitude. He sailed from Havre de Grace on the
ITtli March, 1604, and arrived at a harbor on the south-
east side of Acadia on the 16th of May following. The
first European settlement was formed at this date, on the
shore of the Bay of Fundy, and on the Annapolis River.
They called their headquarters Port Royal (now Annap-
olis Royal).
Newfoundland was taken formal possession of by Sir
Humphrey Gilbert, on behalf of the crown of England,
twenty-one years prior to this date.
In the year 1613, the French settlement at Port Royal
(Annapolis) was broken up by Sir Samuel Argall, gover-
nor of Virginia, in the name of the English, who con-
sidered the French as intruders upon British possessions.
In 1621, James I. of England granted the whole country
called by the French Acadia, by letters patent, to Sir
William Alexander. Sir William was a Scottish noble-
man, and in the patent the country is named Nova Sootia.
He, with several of his countrymen — men of distinction —
fitted out fourteen vessels, and effected some settlements.
Knights-baronets of Nova Scotia were founded in the
year 1624.
Shortly after this date. Sir David Kirk effected the con-
quest of Canada and Cape Breton.
But just as the British were beginning to establish
themselves in the country, Charles I., in the year 1632,
in the most unceremonious manner, by the treaty of St.
14
F
Vi WW
M
lllil
m
656
DISCOVERY AND EARLY FORTUNES.
Germans, ceded the whole of Acadia and Canada to the
king of France.
In 1G54. as the Frencli were occupied with home con-
flicts, a Britlsli fleet was fitted out by Cromwell, which
soon effected the conquest of the country, and brought it
asrain under the domain of Great Britain.
In 16G7 it was again ceded to France by the treaty of
Breda, one of the conditions being the payment by France
of £16,000 to Sir Thomas Temple, who had expended that
amount on the erection of forts. This condition was
never fulfilled. The French population at this time was
reckoned at 900 or 1,000 at the utmost. The French now
enjoyed peaceable possession of the country for upwards
of twenty years. In 1690, however, an expedition under
Sir William Phipps succeeded in wresting Acadia from
the French ; but by the treaty of Ryswick, 1696, it was
again restored to France.
The French in Acadia (Nova Scotia, &c.) sought every
o})portunity of annoying the British colonists of Massa-
chusetts. The people of Massachusetts retaliated as they
were able. At length they were fully aroused to the im-
portance of taking Acadia entirely out of the hands of the
French. Having obtained the assent of the British gov-
ernment, with the promise that it should not be again
ceded to France, they succeeded, in the year 1710, in effect-
ing the conquest of Port Royal. The expenses of the
expedition, which amounted to £23,000, were paid by the
British government.
Three ycn.rs after this date, peace having been concluded
between Great Britain and France, on the 11th of April,
1713, by the twelfth article of the treaty of Utrecht, "all
Nova Scotia, with its ancient boundaries, as also the city
of Port Royal, and the inhabitants of the same, were
ceded to Great Britain."
The name of Port Royal was now changed to Annapolis
Royal, in honor of Queen Anne. It was strongly garri-
soned, and continued the caoital of Nova Scotia till 1749.
iill
i|r
rROGRESS OF NOVA 8C01IA.
657
^anada to the
General Nickelson, of Massacliusctts, who took a very
active part in the subjugation of Nova Scotia, was ap-
pointed its coninmnder-in-eliief in 1714, and continued to
govern it till 1719. He was succeeded by Colonel Phillips,
under whoso administration a council of eleven was formed.
At this period the population consisted cliielly of Acadians
and Indians. There were, of the former, 4,000 capable of
bearing arms. Tlie attempts to make them swear alle-
giance to tlie crown of Great Britain proved, upon the
whole, unsuccessful
The French, having lost Nova Scotia, turned their at-
tention with much vigor to Cape Breton, which remained
still in their hands. In 1720, they began the fortilication
of Louisburg, and, at the cost of £1,250,000 sterling,
made it one of the strongest forts in America. In con-
junction with the Indians, the}' made frequent and very
destructive forays upon the British settlements in Nova
Scotia.
In 1745, an expedition, under the joint command of
General Bepperell, of New England, and Commodore
Warren, of the West India station, after a brief siege,
took the fort and town of Louisburg. The Island of St.
John (now Prince Edward Island) fell into the hands of
the British at the same time. The French made vigorous
but unsuccessful attempts to retake Cape Breton.
In 1748, however, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle,
and much to the annoyance of the New Englanders and
the provincials generally, Cape Breton was once more re-
stored to France.
The French, now more anxious than ever to obtain more
territory in North America, maintained that it was only
the peninsula of Nova Scotia that was ceded by the treaty
of Utrecht, and that all the country between New Eng-
land and the Gulf of St. Lawrence belonged to the French
crown.
Housed by strong petitions from New England against
this claim, the British government resolved to begin
It
li/iti
■*!
i i
M
.
H '
■tr
■ J
■ '.,■
658
DldCOVERY AND EARLY FORTUNES.
at once tlio settlement of the country with their own
people.
Accordingly 3,700 families were sent out from Great
Britain, under the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, who was ap-
pointed governor of the province. They arrived at the
harbor of Chebucto in the month of June, 1749. fliey
landed, acct>rding to the most authentic accounts, on tlio
21st day of June, 1749, and forthwith began to lay out
and build the city of Halifax, which from that time bo-
came the capital of Nova Scotia. This city was so named
by Cornwallis in honor of the Earl of Halifax, an active
promoter of the enterprise which resulted in founding the
city. A council of six persons, under Governor Cornwallis,
performed the functions of government.
Some live or six years later, Lunenburg was settled by
],453 Germans. What is now the province of New
Brunswick was part of the province of Nova Scotia.
Cape Breton n'as still in the possession of France. In
1755, the French population of Nova Scotia (then iiicluding
New Brunswick) was 18,000 souls. These were a source
of great annoyance and danger to the British settlers.
They leagued with the Indians in conflicts with the British
settlers. Both they and the Indians were tools in the
hands of France, which it used against the British at dis-
cretion.
In the month of September, 1755, the French neutrals
(Acadians) were removed from Nova Scotia and distributed
among the other British possessions in North America.
About 7,000 individuals — men, women, and children —
shared tliis fate. Their projierty, with the exception of
money and movables, was confiscated to the government.
They had 1,269 oxen, 1,537 cows, 5,070 young cattle, 93
horses, 8,660 sheep, and 4,197 hogs. In the district of
Minas (Horton) alone, 255 houses, 276 barns, 15 outhouses,
11 mills, and 1 church were destroyed.
On the invitation of the governor of Nova Scotia, the
lands vacated by the expulsion of the Acadians were set-
E8.
with their own
out from Great
lis, who was ap-
r arrived at the
ic, 1749. They
accounts, on the
)egaTi to hvy out
om that time ho-
itv was so uamed
lalifax, an active
1 in foutiding the
ernor Connvallis,
rg was settled by
province of Kew
of Nova Scotia.
1 of France. In
tia (then including
lese were a source
3 British settlers,
ts with the British
were tools in the
the British at dis-
e French neutrals
•tia and distributed
II North America,
n, and children—
1 the exception of
o the government.
young cattle, 93
III the district of
)arns, 15 outhouses,
■ Nova Scotia, the
Acadians were set-
PR00RES3 OF NOVA SCOTIA.
659
tied by farmers from New England. The grandchildren
and great-grandchildren of these inhabit, at this moment,
the richest and fairest portions cf Nova Scotia.
Louisburg, in Cape Breton, and Quebec, in Canada,
were now the strongholds of the French in America.
Louisburg was twice conquered by the British. It was
finally ceded to Great ]>ritain by the treaty of Paris,
(1763) in which the French relinquished all claims forever
to Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Canada, and all the islands
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
It was in 1758 that orders were given by Governor
Lawrence for the election of the First Provincial Par-
liament of Nova Scotia. It was convened in October of
that year. It consisted of twenty-two members, elected
by freeholders among the people, a council of twelve, and
a governor appointed by the crown.
In 1763 Cape Breton was annexed to Nova Scotia. In
1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia, and had a distinct
government of its own. But in 1819 it was again joined
to Nova Scotia, and has continued a part of that province
to the present time.
It was only in the year 1784 that New Brunswick was
separated from Nova Scotia and erected into a separate
province.
In 1769, the parliamentary estimate for the province
was £4,375. In 1772 the population of Nova Scotia and
Cape Breton was 19,120. In the year 1776, after the re-
volted American colonies had declared their independence,
1,000 royalists left Boston and arrived at Halifax. It is
estimated that the population of the province was aug-
mented by the number of 20,000 from this one source
during the American War of Independence.
From this time onwards the progress of Nova Scotia in
population, and in the development of her great natural
resources, has been marked, steady, regular, and will not
Buffer by comparison with any of her older and more
powerful neighbors.
42
I' :•
p
'i V
:■•-. !•..;!
660 SITUATION — EXTENT — ^NATURAL FKATUKES, ETC.
CHAPTER II.
SITUATION.— EXTENT.— NATURAL FEATURES.— CLIMATE, etc.
Position. — As a glance at the map will show, Nova
Scotia is situated on the eastern side of the continent of
North Ajuerica. It lies between 43° 25 ' and 47° north
latitude, and between 59° 40' and 66° 25' west longi-
tude. It consists of a peninsula, called Nova Scotia pro-
per, and the Island of Cape Breton, which is separated
from the main land by the Strait of Canseau — an outlet
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, joining it to the Atlantic
Ocean. The province projects in a southeast direction
into the Atlantic. It extends about two hundred miles
farther east than any other portion of the North American
continent, except the coast of Labrador. This position
gives it great and peculiar commercial advantages. It
marks it as the great natural highway for travel between
Europe and the continent of America, especially as regards
the vast portions of that continent lying north and west
of the province.
Extent. — Nova Scotia proper is 256 miles in length,
with an extreme breadth of 100 miles, and an area of
15,600 square miles. The Island of Cape Breton is about
100 miles in length, 72 in breadth, with an area of 3,000
square miLs. The whole superficial area of the province of
Nova Scotia is, therefore, 18,600 square miles, or 12,000,000
acres. Still, with an area so limited, it is possessed of
vast mineral resources — exhaustless shore fisheries — great
diversity of soil, and has the capability of raising with
profit a great variety of products.
Natubal Features. — Its surface is undulating. Its
hills, in some instances, are steep and high, though ha'*dly
ever rising to the dignity of mountains, — the highest
(the " Cobequid Chain ") being only 1,100 feet above the
level of the sea. Excellent arable soil is found on the tops
i "
ETC.
JIMATE, KTO.
show, Nova
continent of
id 47" north
west longi-
a Scotia pro-
is separated
LU — an outlet
the Atlantic
sast direction
undred miles
rth American
This position
Ivantages. It
ravel between
ally as regards
Lorth and west
iles in length,
nd an area of
Breton is about
1 area of 3,000
the province of
:s, or 12,000,000
is possessed of
fisheries— great
of raising with
ndulating. Its
1, though ha'-dly
,— the highest
)0 feet above the
bund on the tops
PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
661
of the highest hills, and some of them are covered at this
moment with rich crops of various grains and esculents.
T Lakes 'dndliivers, or rsither&tn ms of the province, are
very numerous. The latest maps give 400 lakes, but this
is considerably short of the nuinbc We know four lakes
in a single district, of considerable extent, and yielding
excellent trout, wiMch have never yet found tlieir way into
any map of the province. The lakes generally afford
excellent trout. Lake Rossignol is the largest in Nova
Scotia proper, being twenty miles in length. The next
largest is Ship Harbor Lake, lifteen miles long ; and the
i.cxt again. Grand Lake, near Halifax, nine miles in length.
The lakes of Cape Breton are nnch larger and more im-
portant. The principal of them are, however, inland seas
rather than lakes. The great Bras d'Or Lake is a mag-
nificent expanse of water, of great depth, about fifty miles
in length, and abounding with the best quality of fish, —
mackerel, herring, cod, &c.
Of the Rivers of Nova Scotia, thirteen flow into North-
umberland Strait ; four into St. George's Bay ; seventeen
into the Atlantic ; and twenty-four into the Bay of Fundy.
With two or three exceptions, all these are navigable for
the ordinary coasting-vessels of the province, for distances
varying from two to twenty miles. The most important
are the Shubenacadie, the Avon, and the Annapolis, flow-
ing into the Bay of Fundy ; the St. Mary's, Musquodo-
boit. La Have, and Liverpool, flovv'ing into the Atlantic.
Among the Bays of Nova Scotia, the most beautiful is
Mahone Bay ; the largest and most remarkable is the Bay
of Fundy, which is about fifty miles in width, and which,
after extending 100 miles inland, divides into two branclx^s.
The northern branch is called Chiegnecto Bay, and forms
part of the boundary-line between Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick. The southern bran(!li is called at its mouth,
and for the diatance of eighteen miles, Minas Channel ; it
then suddenly expands into a beautiful sheet of water
about forty mile& in length, and nearly twenty in breadth,
W?'i
662 SITUATION — EXTENT-
-NATUKAL FEATURES, ETO.
■,; 1 1
iH
^WM
i.iv
'Jf'
called the Basin of Minas ; its Eastern extremity is called
Cobequid Bay. The Bay of Fundy is famous the world
over for the extraordinary height and rapidity of its tides,
and the excellence of its shad fishery. At the mouth of
Minas Channel, the spring tide rises about fifty feet, while
at the mouth of the Shubenacadie, near the head of Cobe-
quid Bay, at the spring tides it attains to the height of
seventy -five feet.
The Harbors of Nova Scotia are numerous, deep, and
spacious. There is, perhaps, not another country in the
world, of tlie same extent, possessed of so many and such
excellent harbors. The JIarhor of Halifax ranks first in
importance. It is pronounced by the highest authorities
" one of the best in the world." It is of easy access for
ships of every class. It is capacious enough to afford
anchorage for the navies of all Europe ; it is also so situ-
ated as to afford protection from every wind. It runs over
fifteen miles inland^ and after passing the city of Halifax,
and having considerably narrowed about three-quarters
of a mile above the city, it suddenly expands into Bedford
Basin, a beautiful sheet of water covering an area of nine
square miles, completely shut in from the sea and affording
good anchorage throughout, with from four to thirty
fathoms of water. The coast line of Nova Scotia extends
over a distance of 1,000 miles; and good harbors are
accessible on every side. The best are, however, on the
Atlantic coast. Between the mouth of the Bay of Fundy
and the Strait of Canseau, a distance of about 300 miles,
tliere are nineteen harbors easy of access, capacious, and
secure for first-class ships. There are also on the same
coast and within the same distance forty other harbors J
inferior capacity, available for vessels of from 300 to 500
tons. There are some excellent harbors also on the north
side of the province.
The Island of Cape Breton is second only to Nova
Scotia proper, in the number and capacity of its harbors.
The " Big Bras d'Or," to which reference has already been
0.
is called
^e world
its tides,
mouth of
ieet, while
. of Cobe-
height of
deep, and
i;ry in the
r and such
iks first in
authorities
access for
. to afford
ilso so situ-
't runs over
of Halifax,
-ee-quarters
ito Bedford
,rea of nine
id affording
r to thirty
otia extends
larbors are
ever, on the
ly of Fundy
t 300 miles,
pacious, and
m the same
r harbors J
a 300 to 500
on the north
ily to Nova
its harbors.
already been
PKOGKESH OF NOVA SCOTIA.
663
made, is one grand harbor. The Strait of Canseau, which
is eighteen miles in length, and varies from one-half to one
and a lialf miles In breadth, with from fourteen to thirty
fatlioms of water, comprises several good harbors. It is
the grand hightoay for vessels running between the Gulf
of St. Lawrence and all of the American coast lying west
of its southern termination. It is often preferred to the
more dangerous route by the north of Cape Breton, by
vessels bound up the St. Lawrence from the east side of
the Atlantic.
ScENEKY. — The scenery of Nova Scotia is not grand or
imposing, when compared with that of some other coun-
tries. Still it is diversified, picturesque, and in some
instances, of exceeding beauty. We know of no scenery —
natural scenery — that can surpass that of Muhone Bay. It
is for sight, not for description. The same may be said
also of the view one obtains from the bluff of Cape Bio-
7nido)i, and souie heights of the North Mountain of Corn-
wallis, — whence may be seen the rich and beautiful valley
of Cornwallis — Ilorton with its Grand Pr:3 — the flourishing
little towns of Canning, Kentville, and "Wolfville — 6,000
acres of the finest marsh-hind in the world — upward of
3,000 snow-white cottages and farm-houses — thirty church-
es— twenty -six school-houses — six temperance halls — thou-
sands of orchards in blossom, or laden with fruit, according
to the season, — the Basin of Minas. with its numerous in-
lets and little estuaries, and the twelve rivers that pour their
waters into its bosom, may be all taken in with one sweep
of the naked eye — while the glass will add still more
to the number and beauty of the objects that consti-
tute the entire scene. A portion A four of the finest
counties in the province is before you, wh le the garden
of Nova Scotia is at your feet. The view obtained from
one of the [)eak8 of the North Mountain of Annapolis is
scarcely inferior. The scenery of Truro, of Pictou, and
Bections of Cape Breton, is also worthy of mention.
Climate. — The climate of Nova Scotia is by no means
^'■'■m'''
! '!
6G4
NA.TCBAL FEATURES — CLI>L4 TE, ETC.
80 severe as it is reported to be, both in Great Britain and
the United States. Though, at some seasons, the weather
is very severe, as compared with England, Ireland, the
South of Scotland, and a great portion of the United
States of America, still it is more conducive to health
than the milder but more humid corresponding seasons
in those countries. The length and severity of Nova
S:;otia winters are greatly compensated by the mildness
and beauty of rutunm, — which is protracted, not unfre-
quently, into the middle of December, — as well as by the
months of steady slerghinj which follow.
Temperature. — The tixtreme of cold is 24° Fahr. below
zero ; the extreme of heat, 95° above, in the shade. These
extremes are not ofren attained to of late years. The
mean temperature of the year is 43°. Ihere are about
100 days in which the temperature is above 70° in sum-
mer. There are about twenty nights in the year in which
the temperature is below zero. The coldest season is from
the last week of Decemher till the first week of March.
The following table exhibits the annual mean temper-
at-ire of several European c'.ties, as compared v»dth Halifax,
No. <\ Scotia, and Toronto_ C. W. :
JjitUude.
F&brenheit.
44'
43
62
63
60
49
4C' Halifax 4^.8
39 Toronto 44.4
31 Barlin 47.5
23 Dublin 49.1
7 ... Frankfort 49.6
39 Oh,rboorg 52.1
ITEAN SUMUER TEMPERATURE.
Fahrenheit.
Halifax • 6i.O
Toronto «4 5
Greenwich . . GO 9
Berlin 63.2
Cherbourg 61.9
The annual qu'mtity of rain which falls is about forty
one inches. Of tliis quantity about six and a half inches
fall in the form of snow. The annual depth of snow is
.
ve 70° in sum-
PROORESS Oi" NOVA SCOTIA.
6G5
eight and a half Feet. Much of this quantity of snow is
not allowed to rest long in its solid form. There are about
114 days of rain on the average in each year, and much of
this rain occurs in winter. The average days of snow in
each year is about sixty.
Violent tempests are not of frequent occurrence in Nova
Scotia. The prevailing winds are the south-west, west,
and north-%vest. In summer the north, north-west, and
west winds are cool and dry. In winter they are cold and
piercing. The south and south-west are mild — agreeable
— delightful. The north-east brings our greatest snow-
frtorms ; the east and south-east our most disagreeable
rain-storms.
The Si;asons. — Spring commences in Nova Scotia
with the beginning of April. Seed-time and planting
continue till the middle of June.
Summer begins with tiie latter part of June, and em-
braces July and August, Vegetation is very rapid in the
middle and western parts of the province, where the hay,
crop, and usually nearly all the grain-crops, are harvested
by the last week of August or first week of September.
Autumn is the finest season in Nova Scotia. It is
mild, serene, and cool enough to be bracing, and the at-
mosphere is of a purity that renders it peculiarly exhil-
arating and health-giving. The " Indian summer" occurs
sometimes as late as the middle of November, and lasts
from three to ten days.
The Winter in Nova Scotia may be said to comprise
about four months. It begins, some seasons, with the 1st
of December, and runs into the month of April. Other
seasons it be<rins in the middle of December and ends
with the last of March.
The mean temperature of Spring is 49 ; of Summer,
62; of Autumn, 35 ; of Winter, 22.
Variety of Productions as a Test of Climate. — Similari-
ty in agricultural productions furnishes a very fair criterion
for the comparison of the climates of different countries.
M
111 !
in i^^i
! ; - !
i,i i^
».
606
NATURAL KESOITRCES.
Wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, potatoes,
turnips, maugel-wurtzul, tomatoes, and other roots and
grains grow in abundance and perfection in Nova Scotia.
Apples, pears, plums, cherries, and a multitude of smaller
garden-fruits attain the utmost perfect'on. In some sec-
tions of the country peaches and grapes ripen in the open
air.
Health and Longevity. — The climate of Nova Scotia
is highly favorable both to health and length of days.
Men and women frequently attain to the age of eighty years
with the full possession of their mental faculties, and in
excellent bodily health. It is not unusual to find men
enjoying good health at ninety ; and not a few reach
one hundred years, while some pass over that extreme
boundary.
Let the proportion of deaths to population in Nova
Scotia be compared with that in Great Britain and the
State of Rhode Island : —
Nova Scotia, 1 in 70.71, or less than li per cent
Rhode Island, 1 in 46.lt, or more than 2 "
Great Britain, 1 in 44.75, or more than 2 "
The climate of Nova Scotia is not noted for the genera-
tion of any disease peculiar to itself. Dijphtheria has, of
late years, been its most terrible scourge.
CHAPTER m.
NATURAL RESOURCES.
The natural resources of Nova Scotia are not to be sm-
passed by those of any country of equal extent on the face
of the earth. Our sketch of them here will be compre-
hensive, thougli necessarily very brief.
Botanical. — We only enumerate the plants and treed
II
rKOGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
lants and tree**
667
that enter more especially into the industry and commerce
of the province. The most important of these are : the
white and red pine ; the hemlock ; the black, red, and
white spruce ; the fir, and the hackmatack or juniper, of
the order coniferm. The trees enumerated are commonly
called soft wood. They are brought into market in the
form of boards, plank, shingles, scantling, &c. The
hackmatack is very valuable as ship-timber.
Among the most useful hardwood trees are the black
sugar-maple, the white sugar-maple, the white soft maple,
the red maple, the striped maple, the mountain maple ;
the white ash, the black ash ; the white beech, the red
beech ; the white oak, the black oak ; the yellow, the
black, the white, the canoe, and the poplar-leaved birch ;
and the hazel. The rock-maple ranks high for the su-
perior quality of its timber. The variety known as bird's-
eye maple is much used in the manufacture of furniture.
Tlie black birch is also much used in the manufacture of
furniture, and when highly polished is preferred by many
to mahogany, to which, in that state, it bears a very strong
resemblance. Birches are also used in ship-building.
Among the ornamental trees of Nova Scotia the prin-
cipal are the sumach, the wild pear, the mountain ash,
the wild hawthorn, the wild red cherry, the willow, the
aspen, the poplar, the white-leaved poplar, the acacia.
Distinguished among medicinal plants are the black
cherry-tree and the sarsaparilla. Among the wild plants
of Nova Scotia, distinguished for the beauty of their
flowers, are the May-flower, the white pond-lily, the wild
rose, the Indian cup, Solomon's seal, the tree cranberry,
the pigeon-berry, the Indian hemp, the wild pea, the star-
flower, the violet.
The strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, blueberry,
whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, are the principal
fruit-bearing plants.
Agricultural. — For a country of such limited area.
Nova Scotia possesses great diversity of soil, and the
111
}IKTf*^f,
■
nns
NATURAL RESOUKCES.
capability of raising, with profit, a great variety of pro*
ducts.
Young, in his " Letters of Agricola," pubh'shed some
forty-four vears ago. classified the principal soils of Nova
Scotia as follows:
1. Marsh. — A compound of fine particles of sand,
limestone, clay, calcareous earth, — of shells and putres-
cent remains of vegetables and animals, which lived and
decayed upon it.
2. Fresh-water Intervale. — The finest of Nova Scotia
loams.
3. Upland Loams. — Of the same material, but the
parts are bulkier, and not so well mixed.
4. Sandy or Gravelly Uplands. — Unproductive to any
remunerative degree, in their natural state ; but capable
of great improvement by the addition of clay.
5. Clay in the Unsubdued State. — The most barren of
all soils, but. capable of being rendered eminently fertile,
by the mixing of a quantity of sand with it, suflicient to
open its pores, and then spreading over it a small quan-
tity of lime.
Dr. Dawson, Principal of McGill College, classifies the
soils of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton under the following
heads :
1. The soils of the Metamorphic district of the Atlan-
tic coast.
2. The soils of the Metamorphic districts of the inland
hills.
3. The soils of the Carboniferous and New Red Sand-
stone districts.
4. The Marine and River Alluvia, Marshj and Inter-
vale soil.
5. Bog soils.
First. — The Metamorphic District of the Atlantic Coast
If you run a straight line from the north of Clare, in Dig-
by, tc the head of Chedabucto Bay, nearly all to the south
of that line will belong to this district. It is an uneven
t:i
of Nova Scotia
Lterial, but the
ict of the Atlan-
cts of the inlaud
New Ked Sand-
arshj and Inter-
PB0GRE8S OF NOVA SCOTIA.
669
but not very elevated country. It is composed of slate,
granite, and quartzose rocks. It abounds witli lakes,
streams, and rocky ridges ; and contains the greater part
of the barren lands of the province. Of cultivable soil,
there are two kinds, — the granitic and slaty. The gra-
nitic is usually coarse and sandy, and often covered with
black vegetable mould. In most cases it produces good
crops. This kind of soil is abundant in the county of
Slielburne ; between Chester and Halifax ; at Musquodo-
boit Harbor ; between Indian Harbor and Cape Canseau ;
and in the southern part of Kings and Annapolis, which
are on the northern margin of this district. These soils
are generally deficient in lime, gypsum, and phosphates,
while often well supplied with alkaline matter. It is a
happy arrangement that this kind of soil occurs near the
sea, where the very elements of fertility which it lacks
can be supplied from sea-weed and fish ofial, which are
both abundant and accessible in the districts which have
most need of them. The slat/y variety of this district con-
sists usually of clays — more or less stifi*, sometimes light
and shingly. When not too much encumbered with frag-
ments of rocks, or too shallow, they are generally culti-
vable, and sometimes of very fair quality. They are ca-
pable of great improvement by draining, sanding, liming,
and receiving an occasional covering of sea manure or
compost. Soils of this description occur abundantly in
Clare, Yarmouth, North Queens, Lunenburg, Halifax,
and southern Guysborough ; — some of which is under ex-
cellent cultivation, and, for some kinds of crops, will take
rank with any upland in the province. When properly
cultivated, this land yields excellent pasturage, and might
be made a source of wealth, by rearing flocks and herds.
There are 140,000 acres of cultivable ungranted land in
this section of the province.
Second. — We have the soils of the Inland Hills, —the
Silurian and Devonian districts. Under this head may
be comprised the Cobequid range of hills, extending from
if
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lit
.mM
■ f^i i 5::!
rjrn' : wt;;:
670
NATURAL RESOURCES.
Cape Cliief:^necto to the east of Earltown, on the hordcrs of
Pictou ; the hills on the south side of the Valley of Corn-
wallis (locally called " the South Mountain") ; till the
hilly country extending from the sources of the Stewiacko
through Pictou, Sydney, and Northern Guysborough,
with the greater part of the hills of Cape Breton. With
some inconsiderable exceptions, the soils of these districts
may be characterized as good. They are often deep, and
easily worked, and always fertile. In their original state,
they are covered with a fine growth of hard-wood tindier;
and when well cultivated, yield excellent crops of hay,
oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and other root and
green crops. In the more fertile parts of these hilly
ranges, as in South Ilorton, New Annan, Earltown, the
Pictou Hills, Lochaber, and northern Cape Breton, there
are fine fiourishinff afyricultural settlements. A consider-
able part of the soil included in the granitic district ap-
proaches in quality the soils of these districts, as in Clare,
North Yarmouth, Queens, Bawdon, and Douglas in
Hants, for exainple. The quantity of ungranted (crown)
lands in these districts may be stated, in round numbers,
at about 4(i0,000 acres.
Third. — We come to the soils of the Carhoniferous and
Nev) Red Sandstone districts. These occupy the low
country of Annapolis, Kings, Hants, Colchester, Cumber-
land, Pictou, Guysborough, Sydney, and the several coun-
ties of Cape Breton. In some cases it rises on the flanks
of the hills. Dr. Dawson has four varieties under this
head. — 1. The loamy and marly soils of the carbonifer-
ous system, which occur usually in the vicinity of large
deposits of limestone and gypsum, and of which the soils
of Mabou, Whycocomah, Long Point, Middle River, Bad-
deck, Boularderie, Red Islands, Irish Cove, and other sec-
tions of Cape Breton : Antigonish, South River, Merigo-
mish, parts of Eas^ and West Rivers of Pictou, River
John, Cape John. Tatamagouche, Gulf Shore of Wallace,
Went worth, and Pugwash ; much, also, of South Colches-
PKOGKK88 OF NOVA SCOTIA.
671
ter and Soutli Ilants, Stcwiacke, Shubenaeadie, Newport,
Windsor, Gay's River, and parts of Musquodohoit, may
be given as good specimens of tbis cbass. The soil of all
these localities is entitled to the character of first-class up-
lands, not to be surpassed by the upland of any country,
■when properly tilled.*
2. There are the clays, sands, and stony groun<ls of tho
carhoniferous district. These are light-colored or reddish
Btiff clays, white and gray sands, and ground filled with
fla^rgy fragments of hard sand-stone, and sometimes peb-
bles and other rocks. This soil is greatly inferior to the
kind last described, though often in its close vicinity, and
even intersecting it.
3. Loams and Sands of the New Red Sandstone. Those
are limited to the cojintry bordering on the Bay of Fundy.
They occur near Truro ; they skirt both sides of Cobequid
Bay ; occur in several places in Hants, but more extensive-
ly in the Valley of Cornwallis, and onward toward Annap-
olis, Generally they are of a bright-red color, and vary
from loams to sandy loams, and light sands. When not
"run out," the red loams and sands abound in oxide of
iron, lime, and gypsum, but they are deficient in phos-
phates and alkalies. They are admirable for the culture
of the apple and other fruits, also for potatoes and Indian
corn ; wliile as grain soils they are inferior to the best
soils of the carboniferous and silurian districts.
4. The soil of the Trap district, which is confined to
the North Mountain of Kings and Annapolis, and its pro-
longation in Digby, and to a few isolated patches on the
opposite side of the bay, yields well at first, but soon be-
comes degenerated. It is best fitted for pasturage, and is
being largely used for that purpose.
Fourth. — These are the Alluvial soils. These are the
best soils of Nova Scotia. There are three varieties of this
class: Red Marsh, Blue Marp^i nd Intervale. — 1. The
* Tho quantity of ungranted land of aperior class is about two hundred
thousand acres.
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NArLBAL RESOURCES.
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Eed Marsli is far the best. There iB no soil in the •world
to surpass the best portions of it. Some portions of the
Grand Pre of Horton, and the Cornwaliis Middle and
Upper Dykes, have been cropped for upwards of 200
years without manure. The richness of tliis soil is such,
that when carted on upland it makes excellent manure.
It has 87.00 per coat, of silicious sand, very fine,
in its composition.
Organic matter.
Chlorine.
Soda.
Potash.
Sulphuric Acid.
Lime.
Alumina.
Magnesia.
Carbonate of Lime.
Oxide of Iron.
Magnesia. •
Phosphoric Acid.
Moisture.
The weak point oi rnis soil is the small proportions of
phosphates it contains; and although it may bear crop-
ping for generations without manure, it will gradually
run out. Draining is essential to its fertility. Admitting
the sea-water to deposit new layers of mud, is one method
of restoring its power. Bone-dust and guano are the best
restoratives. — 2. Blue Marsh — which is also known by
the names, inshore dyke, low marsh, corky dyke, and gray
marsh — is much inferior to the red marsh. It contains
more vegetable matter than the red, and is often not much
superior to boggy swamp. Draining and heavy liming
have been tried on this kind of marsli with excellent effect.
When drawn out and composted with lime or marl, it
makes an excellent top-dressing for upland grass. — 3. The
Fresh-water Alluvium of Nova Scotia is generally of very
good quality. There is hardly a river, or even a brook
in Nova Scotia which is not skirted with more or less of
this beautiful and productive soil. It is spoken of usually
under the name Intervale. There are about 40,000 acres
of alluvial soil ungranted in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.
10 soil in the ■world
ome portions Df the
iwaliis Midd.e and
or upwards of 200
of this soil is such,
excellent manure.
PROdRESS or NOVA SCOTIA.
673
Fifth. — ^Tliere are the Bog Soils. Much of the bog
land of Nova Scotia is called meadow, and is covered with
natural grass. Other portions are covered with spruce,
alder, and other treet.., and usually called swamps; and
others again are covered with low shrubs and moss, and
are known simply by the name bogs. The greater part
of the bog soil of this province is at present unproductive.
It is, however, being rapidly reclaimed. When cleared,
and burned, and drained, and limed, and sanded, it is
found to be equal in productiveness to good marsh land.
After being once well cultivated, it will yield a succes-
sion of crops without manuring.
The natural capabilities of Nova Scotia, as an agricul-
tural country, will be best illustrated by the subjoined
table, compiled from authoritative documents :
PRODUCE PER
ACRE.
State of
state of
Cnnadft
New
New York.
Ohio.
West. Brunswick. Nova Scatls.
Wheat,
bushels, 14
15i
12f
20
25 to 33
Barley,
" 16
24
17i
29
39 to 40
Oats,
" 26
33t
24J
34
35 to 45
Rye,
» n
16i
lU
20i
35 to 45
Buckwheat,
" 14
2i
16f
331
40 to 45
Indian Corn,
" 25
41i
24f
41i
30 to 60
Potatoes,
90
69
84
226
200 to 350
Turnips,
" 88
, ^
460
400 to 600
Hay,
tons,
li
• ■
U
litoS
What relates to the United States, Canada, and New
Brunswick, is taken upon the authority of Professor John-
Bton and Principal Dawson. The rates per acre in Nova
Scotia are on tlie authority of the Secretary of the Central
Board of Agriculture, James Iron, Esq., verified by my
own observation, and the testimony of practical farmers.
In Cornwallis, well-manured upland yields 300 bushels of
potatoes per acre ; while on the dyked land of that place,
600 bushels have been raised off one acre. Seventy bush-
els of oats have been raised off the same land. Also forty
bushels per acre of wheat. Tliis is of the very best dyke
land, but without being manured.
ir
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, C74
NATURAL BES0UECE8.
Zoological. — Like most of their brethren on this conti-
nent, the aborigines of Nova Scotia lived by hunting and
fishing. The early immigrants too found the chief attrac-
tion in the chase and the fishery, which the forests and
rivers, and lakes, and shores of the country afforded. Tliey
prosecuted the department of hunting with such excessive
eagerness, that in less than one ceiitury, more than one
valuable species became extinct, at the same time that
the most valuable, both for fur and food, became very
scarce.
Among the native quadrupeds of the province, the
moose, cariboo, bear, fox, lynx, weasel, martin, otter,
minx, fisher, woodchuck, hare, raccoon, porcupine, beaver,
musquash, squirrel, rat, mouse, are still to be found.
The moose is the most splendid animal of our forest. He
is generally sixteen hands high. His palmated horns,
which he sheds annually in February, weign from thirty
to forty pounds. He has no brow antlers. His head i?
long, neck short, ears large and pointed, and nostrils great-
ly dilated. His upper lip is very broad and pendent, his
legs long, tail short ; his hoof is cloven, and when he trots
the clattering of it can be heard a long distance. His col-
or is light gray, mixed with a dark red. His flesh is ten-
der, delicate, easy of digestion, palatable, and nourishing.
He ruminates like the ox, and feeds on moss, on the natu-
ral grass of intervales, and on the tender buds and leaves
of a species of maple called moosewood.
The cariboo is distinguished by having brow antlers,
which are rounder than the horns of the moos?. It is not
60 tall as the moose, but more swift. Its flesh is very ten-
der, and much esteemed for its nourishing qualities. Both
moose and cariboo were very numerous in Nova Scotia
forty years ago, but they are fast disappearing.
The only kind of bear in Nova Scotia is the Mack hear,
which attains to a very large size, and weighs from 500 to
800 pounds.
We have four varieties oi fox — the red, gray, silver, and
,8, on the natu-
uds and leaves
PROGRESS OF NOVA BCOTIA.
675
black. Their fur, with that of the otter, minx, and bea-
ver, forms a valuable export. That it is not surpassed
by any other fur in the world, may be fairly inferred
from the fact, that " a medal was awarded to W. J. Cole-
man, Esq., for a very choice collection of skins — fine speci-
mens of silver, red, and cross fox, otter, and minx," by the
jury of the Great International Exhibition of 1862.
The native birds of Nova Scotia are too numerous to
be even enumerated here. Each of the six orders into
which birds have been divided, is well represented. Of
the order Raptures are two families : theyaZcow* and cywls ,
prominent specimens of which are, the bald-eagle, the fish-
hawk, hen-hawk, and sparrow-hawk ; of the owls, we have
the white owl, great-eared owl, speckled owl, horned owl,
barn owl. Of the order Perchers^ there are the shrikes,
warblers, thrushes, fly-catchers, chatterers, finches, cross-
liUs, crows, creepers, humming-birds, hing-fi^hers, swallows,
night-hawks / under each of these families there are many
Bpecies, wliich I attempt not to enumerate. Of the order
Climbers, the woodpecker is the most familiar family in
Nova Scotia. Of the order /Scrapers, the grouse and
pigeons are the chief families in Nova Scotia, of which
the birch-partridge, spruce-partridge, and wild-pigeon are
well known specimens. Of the order Waders, there are
herons, snipes, phalarope-s, and plovers. Of the last order,
the Swim7ners, we have six families — the ducks and geese,
divers, avks, gulls, gannets, and grebes.
The reptiles of Nova Scotia are not very numerous,
neither are they large in size, nor injurious to man. The
principal are the tortoise (fresh water) ; several species of
snakes ; some lizards ; several species of frogs, toads, and
newts.
Fish forms one of the chief natural resources of Nova
Scotia and Cape Breton. With the exception of New-
foundland, no other country on this continent can ap-
proach Nova Scotia in the article of fish. Her seas, bays,
and coasts abound with inexhaustible quantities of mack-
43
-\^--
^|H:
K« 1 -mmlK!timjimf Jit .<*':
» rl
676
NATUBAi BESOmWES.
erel, herring, cod, haddock, halibut, alewives oi gaeperean
pollock, salmon, and shad. All these are superior in qual-
ity. There is hardly a lake, river, or streamlet, that does
not abound with excellent trout, salmon, perch, or some
other kind of fresh-water fish. The cod, mackerel, and
herring, are the most important and numerous. The cod
and haddock frequent the coast of the province throughout
nearly its entire extent, and in quantities which hardly
know exhaustion. The mackerel come in vast " schules^''
of several miles in breadth, sometimes so dense as to iir.
pede the progress of smaller vessels. With proper appli-
ances immense quantities can be secured at a single hau]
from these masses. Upwa'ds of 3,000 barrels have been
taken in a single night, and 1,000 barrels in a single haul.
In the autumn of 1855, upwards of 20,000 barrels of mack-
erel were taken in the harbor of Halifax alone. Mackerel
of the first quab'ty abound in the Great Bras d'Or Lakes,
Cape Breton. There is no part of the Atlantic coast
where herring may not be caught in abundance. The
halibut is a delicious fish, attaining sometimes to the
weight of 500 pounds ; it is very abundant on the Atlantic
coast. The Bay of Fundy shad is a splendid fish, greatly
valued, and always in demand at a good price, at home
and abroad. It is seldom found on the Atlantic coast,
the Bay of Fundy, with its basins, and estuaries, and trib-
utary rivers, being its chief resort. The alewife, aloof, or
gaspereau, is caught in rivers and streams, where it resorts
in great quantities in spring. The salmon is found in most
of the rivers of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, and 'b taken
on the coast in spring, before it has entered thn rivers.
The conim/)n trout, and salm/m-trout are found in all lakes,
rivers, and brooks. The eel, perch, and smAt, abound in
the harbors and streams.
Of shell-jish our coasts furnish the following specimenfl :
The lobster, muscle, sea clam, cockle, blue crab, nipple-
fish, oyster, periwinkle, quahog, scallop, razor-fish, shore
clam, sea-spider, soldier-crab, sea-crab, and star-fish.
PBOGEE88 OF NOVA SCOTIA.
677
p, razor-fish, shore
ind star-fish.
CHAFTER IV.
/ POPULATION, STATISTICS, &C.
The study of the increase and origin of the population
of a country is both interesting and important. The peo-
ple of a country, after all, is its most precious treasure.
It is its men that make a country great or otherwise.
Every thing relating to the origin, character, habits, and
progress of the population is, therefore, deserving of care-
ful preservation and study. Till tho taking of the last
census in this province, there had been a very sad neglect
in securing and preserving information on these subjects.
The Mie Mac Indians and French Acadians constituted
the bulk of the population of Nova Scotia, inclusive of
Cape Breton and what now forms the province of New
Brunswick, prior to the year 1755, when the expulsion of
the disloyal Acadians took place. A considerable acces-
sion to the British population was made in 1749, when the
city of Halifax was founded.
At the date of the expulsion of the disloyal Acadians,
the British population of the whole province of Nova
Scotia was only 5,000.
Three years after this date a proclamation was issued
by the governor of Nova Scotia, inviting the people of
New England to settle on the linds of the banished Aca-
dians. The terms were very liberal, and huiiareds of
substantial farmers came over and settled in the sevhral
districts left vacant by the Acadians.
In 1764 the population of the province was estimated
at 13,000. The American War of Independence added
considerably to the population of Nova Scotia. The
number of loyalists who sought refuge in the province
during that war has been estimated at 20,000. Their
descendants are to be found in the counties of Shelburne,
Digby, Annapol's, Hants, and Guysborough.
-'t
iti'M
%
m
B
HI
i
: >'l rili
'ii^ U
678 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC.
Emigration from Scotland added largely to the popula^
tion of the province in the years 1770-1775. The eastern
part of Nova Scotia proper and Cape Breton are indebted
mainly to Scotland for their population.
By the last census — that of 1861 — we have only 5,927
Negroes, 1,407 Indians, and 20,859 Acadians.
The following table will give a view of the increase of
the population of Nova Scotia, down to the census of 1861 :
Dates, Population. Interral of years. r«te of IncreaM.
1755, 5,000, ..
1764, 13.000, 9,
1772, 19,920, 8,
1784, 32,000, 12,
1818, 82,053, 84, 156.41.
1828, 153,848, 10, 87.49.
1837, 199,906, 9, 29.93.
1851, 276,117, 14, 38.12.
1861, 300,857, 10, 19.82.
Since the period of the American Eevolution, Nova
Scotia has received no considerable addition to her popu-
lation from immigration. A ship-load of immigrants from
Scotland, and another from Ireland, might arrive at some
of our principal ports, at the earlier period, once a year,
latterly once in two or three years, and land half her
passengers, and then proceed to Canada or the United
States with the remainder. The prog* ess of our popula-
tion cannot, therefore, fairly be compared with that of
Canada or the United States, as a whole. Nearly three-
fourths of the population of Canada, by the last census,
and about one-half of the population of the United States,
have arisen from immigration.
When we compare the rate of increase of population in
Nova Scotia with that of older countries, the result is
highly gratifying to our patriotism.
Let us compare it with some of the New England States.
From the year of the peace of 1783 to 1850, the popula-
tion of Connecticut increased less than twofold; Ehode
Island and Massachusetts, nearly threefold ; New Hamp*
r^te of Increaae.
id; New Hamp-
rEOQKESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 679
shire, nearly rburfold. Nova Scotia proper increased, from
1784 to 1851, more than sixfold, and to 1861, more than
eightfold; while, including Cape Breton, it increased more
than tenfold.
nSi. 1850.
Rhode Island, 50,400 147,545
New Hampshire, 82,500 317,976
Connecticut, 206,000 370,792
Massacliusetts, 350,000 994,504:
Nova Scotia (1784), 32,000 (1851) 276,117
The following table will show the increase of the popu-
lation for the last ten years in the several counties of the
province :
POPULATION. Rate per cent.
1861. 1S61. Increase, of Increajo.
Halifax (city) 19,949 25,026 5,077 25.44
" (outside city).. 19,163 23,995 4,832 25.21
Total in county 39,112 49,021 9,909 25.33
Colchester 15,469 20,045 4,576 29.58
Cumberland 14,339 19,533 5,194 36.22
Pictou 25,593 28,785 3,192 12.47
Sydney 18,467 14,871 1,404 10.42
Guysborough 10,838 12,713 1,875 17.30
Inverness 16,917 19,967 3,050 18.02
Richmond 10,381 12,607 2,226 21.44
S^'Setoa county [ "•"« \^^A ^-'^^ "-'^
Hants 14,330 17,460 3,130 21.14
Kings 14,138 18,731 4,593 32.48
Annapolis 14,286 16,953 2,467 17.26
Digby 12,252 14,751 2,499 20.39
Yarmouth 13,142 15,446 2,304 17.53
Shelburne 10,622 10,668 46 .48
Queens 7,256 9,365 2,109 29.06
Lunenburg 16,395 19,632 3,237 19.74
Totals 276,117 350,857 54,740 19.82
The average number of members in each family in tiie
province is 6.07 ; in Canada, in 1851, the average was 6.26,
and in Great Britain, at the same date, 4.73.
Origin of the Poi^ulation. — Out of a population of
330,857, there are 294,706 native born, leaving only
36,151 who have come from abroad ; the proportion bom
out cf the province being 10.92 per cent, of the whole.
'M
r i
680
POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC.
The following abstract, prepared from the census of
1861, will give an interesting view of our population by
origin :
Native Nova Scotlans 294.706
Scottish 16.896
Irish 9,8i8
English 2,998
Welsh 97
Guern.'^ey 28
Jersey 62
Isle of Man . . 8
Canada 868
New Brunswick 2,"61
Newfoundland 927
Prince Edward Island 870
Magdalen Islands 12
West Indies 216
United States 1,960
Franco 88
Spain It
Portugal 9
Siirdlnla. 1
Italy 14
Born at Sea 40
Turkey
Places In the Mediterranean.
Qcrinany
Norway
Belgium
Denmark
Hungary
-■ ■■ d.
Holland
East Indies ....
Russia
Africa
Australia
Now Zealand...
Prussia
Poland
Switzerland ....
Sweden
South America..
All other places. 189
ToUl populatloa 880,857
I
41
193
8
15
9
1
7
15
8
16
8
8
17
1
5
8
The Religious Census of Nova Scotia may be exhibited
as follows :
Episcopalians 47,714
United Presbyterians . . 69,466 I oq r o
Church of Scotland . . . .10,068 ) '^'"'^^
Romanists 86,281
Baptists M,886
Wesloyan Methodists 34,055
Free Cl, -istian Baptists 6,704
Christian Disciples. 901
Congregationalists 2,183
Reformed Presbyterians 236
other Creeds not classed 822
Lutherans 4,382
Universalists Btt
Quakers li)8
Sandenianians 46
Bible Christians lli
Campbcllitos 82
Evangelical Union 143
Swedenborgians l!»
Mormons 27
Deists »
No creed given , 2,314
Total population 880,857
PEOPESSIONS, TRADES, AND OCOCPATIONSL
Farmers 37,897
Farm Laborers 9,306
Fishermen 7,669
Mariners 6,242
Laborers 3,908
Carpenters and Joiners 4,463
Shocmakpri 1,9T6
M'?rchant8 1,472
Blacksmiths 1,618
Shipwrights 1,122
Coopers 1,146
Tailors.
Tanners and Curriers.
Traders
Servants
Painters
Millers
Lumberers
Grooers
Clerks
Dreasmakera
Masons
Minera
670
853
868
474
208
692
607
212
494
209
686
666
Weavers IW
Wheelwrights 178
Truckmen 176
Saddlers and Harness-Makers 15t
Sailniakers 121
Shop-keepers 107
Millwrights 184
Hotel and Inn keepers ,
Cabinetmakers
Carriage-makers
Butchers
Printers
Bakers
Brick-makers
Accountants
Calkers
Grindstone-makers
Qunrrymen
Pilots
Bricklayers
Bigger*
Plasterers
Pliunbors.
141
162
147
115
90
91
4t
74
76
60
52
II
the census of
population bj
I
mean 41
198
S
16
9
1
7
15
8
16
8
8
IT
1
B
8
9
IM
880,85T
lay be exhibited
84«
lo8
46
llj
82
I 143
lb
2T
8
2,314
1 880,887
ONa
1911
178
176
iCBS-Makers 15T
121
107
184
!per» 189
147
163
147
115
9«
91
U
74
s 76
50
63
24
88
68
•»
PEOOEE88 OF NOVA SCOTIA.
681
Miniiu'W 76
Machinists 85
Moulders 88
MsstDQukei'B 28
8«wyirrt 68
Tinsmiths 181
Tallofesses 94
Wttdi and Clockmakera 71
Stonecutters 82
Telegraph Operators. ; 21
Turners 84
Tobacconists 18
Seamstresses 90
Gardeners 46
Iron Founders IS
Engineers 64
Dyers 17
Carders and Fullers 21
Confectioners g
Civil Engineers 22
Boathuilders 71
Cab-drivers 20
Chemists and Apothecaries 42
t..rvers and Gilders IS
Chainnakers IS
Boarding-house keepers 18
Block and Pump makers 47
Brewers 16
Architects 18
Artists 27
Booksellers and Stationers 17
Brass Founders 12
Bookbinders 12
Bankers 8
Brokers 5
Auctioneers 8
Builders 6
Basketmakers 7
Boilermakers 4
Jewellers 11
Judges S
Clergymen and Ministers 889
Pbysicians and Snrgeons 17C
BarriKtcr and Attorneys 147
School Teachers 864
Students 98
MaKlstratts 1,220
High SherifTs 18
Coroners 88
Judges ofl'robato 14
Prothonotaries 18
Aldermen 18
Clerks of Peace 22
Register of Deeds 1
Collectors and Controllers of Cus-
toms 61
Heads of Departments 8
Surgeons 85
Teachers of Deaf Mutes 2
Winedealers 8
Upholsterers 2
Trunkmnkers 2
Silversmiths 4
Stevedores 20
Kopcniakers 4
Nailcutters 8
Peddlers 16
Potters 9
Pianofortemakers 9
Papermakers 6
Matchmakers 7
Marble workers 16
Musicians 27
Light-house keepers 27
Lumber dealers 7
Iron-puddlers T
Gasfitters 14
Gunsmiths 6
Farriers 12
Ferrymen 18
Distillers i
Brushmakers T
Dentists 6
All others. ST
Diseases and Deaths. — The total number of deaths in
one year — the year previous to the taking of the census
of 1861 — was 4,769, being 1.41 per cent, of the entire
population. 2,480 of this number were males, and 2,199
females. One-third of the total number of deaths is of
persons under five years of age, and over two-fifths of this
iiuinber take place under one year of age. The census
of 1851 showed the mortality of that period to be 2,802,
or about one per cent, of the population. The increased
mortality, as shown by the census of 1861, is owing to
the ravages of that fatal, and, in this province, compara-
tively new disease, diphtheria. In the year immediately
preceding the census it carried off upwards of one t/iousand
persons. The only other disease that approaches it by
half is consuTnpiion, which had swept off 767 in the same
m^_
I
ill
682
POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC.
year. Scarlet fever ranks next, being 210 ; tlien measles^
152 ; next croup, 122 ; wflammation of the lungs and sore
throat are the only other specitir diseases that have taken
off as many as one hundred in the year. The mortahty
in Upper Canada, in 1851, was under one per cent. ; in
Lower Canada it was one and one-third per cent. ; in I^ew
Brunswick it was the same as in Lower Canada.*
* DEATHS AND CAUSES OP DEATHS.
Class and Nature of Disease.
Epidemic, Eitdemic, and Conta-
gious ZHtteaaet.
Cholera
Cramp
luti-rinittent Fever.
Dii)htlieria
Dysentery
Typhus Fever
Iloupinf; Cough
InHuenza
Measles
Scarlet Fever
Small Pox
J>lseases of the Nervovs System.
Apoplexy
Urnin Fever
Diseases of the Brain.
Epilepsy
Paralysis
Insanity
Convulsions
Diseases of the Digestive Organs.
Bilious Fever
Disease of Liver
Disease of Stomach
Indli^estion
Debility
Jaundice
InHumnuition of Bowels..
Inllammation of Stomach.
Disease of Bowels
Wornis
Teething
Deaths,
10
9
22
1,008
2
66
67
12
152
210
49
1,092
21
S2
74
5
41
7
84
Violent and Accidental Deaths.
Burns and Scalds.
Frozen
Drowned
Murdered
Feigned.
Other Accidents..
284
60
42
7
13
2.')
26
93
23
42
26
9
871
22
1
95
1
8
63
m
Class and Nature of Disease.
IHseases of the Respiratory ami
• Circulatin{/ Organs.
Asthma.
Bronchitis
Consumption
Cf onp
Cough
Disease of Lungs
Disease of Ucart
Inflammation of Lungs
Inflammation of ( :hest
Inflannnution of Heart
PleuHsy
Quinsy
Sore Throat
Diseases of Urinary and Genera-
live Organs.
Disease of Bladder
Diabetes
Inflammation of Kidneys.
Puerperal Fever
Child-bed
Diseases of Uncertain Seat
Abscess
Cancer
Colds
Scrofula
After Amputation
Morliflcatlon
Dropsy
Old Age
Frysipelos
Intemperance
Uheumirism
Tumor
Carbuncle
Diseases of Eye and Ear.
Disease of Eye.
Disease of Ear,.
Dauses not specified
Total of Causes specified.
Total.
Deaths,
14
11
767
m
8
U
67
114
8
1
75
15
153
1,856
12
1
6
8
86
63
8
26
35
5
1
4
70
149
85
2
40
834
2
2
4
463
4,227
4,688
then measles,
'un(/s and sore
at have taken
The mortahty
per cent. ; in
cent. ; in I^ow
lada.^
>f DUoose.
Deaths.
inriitori/ and
rgans.
14
11
767
123
8
li
67
lU
;t
8
•t
1
75
15
153
1 and Oenera-
ins.
1,859
13
1
neys
6
8
86
irtain Seat
68
8
26
85
5
1
4
70
149
85
2
40
8
1
and Ear.
884
3
3
4
453
•Ifled
1,237
4,«8g
PKOQBESB OF NOVA SOOTIA. 683
Deaf and Dumb. — ^There is 1 of this class in every
1,100 of the population. In Canada, in 1851, there was
1 in 1,372 ; in the United States, 1 in 2,395 ; in Great
Britain, 1 in 1,590 ; in France, 1 in 1,212 ; in Prussia, 1
in 1,364 ; and in Switzerland, 1 in every 503. The aver-
age proportion of this class throughout the civilized world
is estimated at about 1 in 1,550 of the population.
The Blend. — There were 136 blind persons in Nova
Scotia in 1851. The census of 1861 returns 185 of this
class. It is not stated how many of this number were
born blind, and how many became so by old age or dis-
ease.
Lunatics and Idiots. — In 1851, there were only 166 of
this class of unfortunates, being 1 in 1,660 of the whole
population. The returns for 1861 give 340. It is more
than probable that the number in 1851 was understated.
The number of idiots in the returns of 1851 was 299, and
in 1861, 317.
BELATITB PROPORTION OF BEXSB.
. 1851. . , 1861. .
Males. Females. Males. Females.
Under 10 years of age. . . 44,000 43,452 45,563 44,561
From 10 to 20 88,791 83,444 40,843 39,715
" 20 " 30 20,277 22,385 27,998 30,148
« 30 " 40 14,615 14,665 17,447 18 618
" 40 " 50 10,616 10,271 12,898 13,056
Above 50 years 14,878 14,228 20,489 18,844
187,677 188,445 * 165,233 164,942
* Column of agett not given not included.
m
fm
5 t is
'< ^
-'--tt-fil
oSA
INDUSTEIaL BE80UBCE8.
CHAPTEK Y.
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES.
Under thin head may be comprised the Agricultural^
Fishing, Mining, Com/mercial, 8hij>-huilding, Manufac-
turing, and Lumbering interests, with the progress made
in each of these departments. The natural resources of
Nova Scotia in four of these departments are such as to
afford scope for indefinite industrial progress. Her geo-
graphical position affords eminent facilities for the pursuits
of commerce. Her fisheries have no rivals. Her coal-fields
— the umpires of the Great International Exhibition being
judges — have no equal ^ and her iron, gypsum, and gold,
no superior ; while a great portion of her soil is as fertile
and productive as any in the world.
Agkicultural. — That this is an important part of our
provincial industry, will appear from the fact that there
are 37,897 farmers, and 9,306 farm laborers, given in the
census of 1861 — something considerably over onefourth
of the entire male population of the province. In Upper
Canada, which is eminently an agricultural country, only
three-eighths of the male population claim to be farmers,
in the census of 1851 ; while the State of New York, in
the census of 1855, returned only 321,930, or about one-
fiftli, as such.
As a grazing country. Nova Scotia takes a very respec-
table publtion among her neighbors. The counties of
Kings, Annapolis, Cumberland, Colchester, and Hants,
owing to their excellent and extensive marshes and inter-
vales, are not to be urpassed by any other place in Brit-
ish America, in thi.* respect. No finer heef is produced
in America thft,n that of Kings county, and the praise of
Annapolis cheese bids fair to be as wide-spread as that of
Gloucester, Cheshire, or Duulop cheese. As a wheat pro-
BBi^Hmp
PE0GKES8 OF NOVA SOOTIA.
685
ducing country, Nova Scotia cannot take rank with tlie
Great West. She does not raise her own bread. Still,
in this article she surpasses five of the New England
States, and twelve ot the more recently settled States and
Territories. The Ibllowinff table will illustrate this fact :
Bush.
Rye.
Gate.
Buck-
Barley.
Tons
LbB.
Lbs.
Huahols
Wheat.
297,ir)7
wheat.
Hay.
Butter.
Ohuese.
Potftt,,efl.
Nova Scotia
6T,433
1,884,437
170,801
196,097
287,887
8,618,890
642,06<J
I,0t36,789
Maiiio
2iJ«,269
....
....
104.528
151,731
. • . •
• * • .
....
■ . * .
N. Haiiipsh'e
185,658
. • ■ .
978,381
65,265
70,266
• > . ■
... a
....
. . . •
Mass
81,211
■ ■ * ■
....
105,892
112,385
....
....
R. Island...
49
....
215,232
1,245
18,875
73,863
1,066,62.'^
296^748
651,029
Coiinecti 'ut
41,726
1,268,738
....
19,090
....
....
....
• . •
DIst. of Col.
17.370
5,509
8.184
378
76
1,074
14.869
, , , ,
28,293
Florida
1,021
1,152
66,686
56
2,690
875,653
18.824
7,828
Alabama.. . .
294,041
17,261
■ • . *
848
8,968
81,801
....
80,423
246,001
Mississippi .
187,990
9,606
• * . •
1.121
229
12,517
....
20,314
201,483
Louisiana . .
417
476
26,878
8
.
20,672
658.136
1,148
9.5,683
Texas
41,198
3,108
178,883
66
4,776
8,897
2,819,574
92,018
93,!>48
Arkansas. ..
I99,6;W
8,047
656,183
176
177
8,924
1,854,104
....
198,882
Callfornli: ..
17,821
....
• . . .
9,711i,
2,638
705
....
9,293
Minnesota..
1,401
125
80,682
615
* • • .
2,069
1,100
....
21,146
Oregon
Ut;ih
211,943
106
65,146
■ • * •
....
878
211,784
....
91,836
107,702
210
10,900
a82
1,799
4,288
74,064
a t . .
43,963
Kew Mexico
196,617
• . • •
....
100
5
• . • .
101
....
8
Missouri ...
44,268
28,641
9,861
116,284
....
. • . •
989,006
Kentucky . .
....
....
16,097
95,843
115,?96
....
....
1,496,497
Wisconsin.
• • . .
....
....
79,878
....
888,816
....
1,402.077
Iowa
• > • .
19,916
52,516
25,098
84,598
1,983,128
. . . .'
276,120
Georgia
....
53,760
...
11.601
28,497
....
46,391
227.379
S.Carolina..
....
43,790
283
4,588
25,427
2,979,976
4,810
136,494
N. Carolina..
• . * .
....
16,704
2,736
14.^,180
....
96.048
620,313
Maryland ..
• . > .
. • ■ •
... -
108,671
748
145,070
. . . •
3,926
764,938
Tennessee..
t • . •
19,427
2,787
72,942
....
• • • •
1,067.844
Delaware. ..
....
8,066
60,461
8,615
66
80,169
1,634,867
8,187
840,643
New Jersey.
• • ■ *
• ■ * •
6,492
• . ■ •
■ . a ■
500,319
....
Vlrninia ....
....
«...
....
■ . ■ •
26,437
. . • •
• . • *
4.'.U,^0'J
... a
Illinois
* • . *
. ■ • •
■ > • •
• • * .
110,795
• * . •
... a
• • . a
a a a ■
Indiana
• • • •
• > • .
. ■ . •
• • • •
45,488
• . . •
a * . •
....
. a a a
Michigan. ..
. . • .
. . • *
. . • .
• • • .
76,249
. • ■ •
. . a a
....
aaa*
Pennsylva'a.
* * • .
... *
....
> ■ ■ •
165,534
* . • •
• . ■ •
....
....
Vermont . . .
....
....
....
....
42,160
....
....
Tlie above table is based on the census of 1851. It ap-
pears from the above, that in the growth of Bye, Nova
Scotia exceeds sixteen of the neighboring States and Terri-
tories ; in the growth of Oats, she excels thirteen ; in
Buckwheat, twenty-three ; in Barley, every State and Ter-
ritory in the Union, with theexceptiov. of Ohio and New
York. In the growth of Hay, and in the produce of the
Dairy, the larger, more populous, and older States only
are in advance of Nova Scotia. In Hay, she is ahead of
twenty-two ; in Butter, of fifteen ; in Cheese, of fourteen ;
while in Potatoes she leaves twenty-three of them far be*
:^M
M^ '■'
f-
>,r^j|^5^f?^.Wp„v^. . ,^i
4, ;
mii^-4h 3
686
INDUSTRIAL KEBOURCES.
hind her In the growth of Indian corn, most of the
States surpass Nova Scotia. The quality of the corn raised
in the province is excellent, and the rate per acre is larger
than in any place we know of. It is only in some of the
western counties of the province that any effort has been
made to raise it.
Tlie progress of Nova Scotia in husbandry is not by any
means what it might be, were skill, and industry, and en-
terprise applied to her natural resources, as they have been
in some neighboring countries. Too little attention is
given to the laws of rotation — to the preservation and
preparation of manures — to the management of live stock
— to the using of improved implements and modes of cul-
ture. There is need of a second Agricola, to give a new
impetus to our agricultural interests. Agricultural socie-
ties in many of our counties are but a mere form, without
life or energy ; and the Central Board, if not entirely de-
funct, is certainly asleep for all practical purposes.
Comparison with the past, however, will show that we
are making substantial progress.
The number of acres under cultivation at three succes-
sive periods were as follows :
In 182T.
292,009 acres.
In 1861. In 1861.
839,322 acres. 1,028,032 acres.
Tlie cultivated land of the province is given in the cen-
sus of 18G1, under the following heads . Salt marsh, 20,
Y29 acres ; diked marsh, 35,487 acres ; cultivated inter-
vale, 77,102 acres; and cultivated upland, 894,714 acres;
making a total of 1,028,032 acres, the total value of
which is estimated at $18,801,365, the average value
given per acre is : of diked marsh, $62.06 ; of salt marsh,
$26.04; of cultivated intervale, $27.45 ; and of cultivated
upland, $15.58. This is undoubtedly an under-estimate
of the value of every one of these classes of land. It is to
be accounted for in a great measure by the local preju-
dices of a great many people against giving tne full value
PB
PE0GBK8S OF NOVA SCOTIA.
687
most of the
he corn raised
acre is hirger
1 some of the
fort has been
is not by any
ustry, and en-
hey have been
attention is
servation and
t of live stock
modes of cul-
to give a new
cultural socie-
form, without
ot entirely de-
rposes.
I show that we
,t three succes-
ren in the cen-
alt marsh, 20,
iltivated inter-
894,714 acres;
;otal value of
average value
of salt marsh,
d of cultivated
under-estimate
land. It is to
le local preju-
: tne full value
of their real estate to the enumerators, for fear that it would
be made the basis of taxation. In some counties, cultivated
upland sells for $50, $60, $80, and in some cases, $100 per
acre ; while diked marsh of the most ordinary description
brings $80, and the best from $200 to $350.
COMPABATint STATEMENT
OF AORIOULTURAL PRODUCE,
ETC., roR 182Y,
1851, AND 1861
*
1827.
1861.
1861,
Wheat, bush.
152,861
297,15V
312,081
Barley, "
196,097
269,578
Rye,
61,438
59,706
Oata,
- 449,626
1,384,437
1,978,137
Buckwheat, "
170,301
195,340
Indian Corn, "
87,475
15,529 •
Peas & Beans, "
21,333
Potatoes, "
1,986,789
8,824,864
Turnips, "
467,127
554,318
Ot'iier Roots, "
1^727
A pples, "
186, S4
Phuna, "
4,335
Hay, tons,
163,218
287,837
834,287
Maple Sugar, lbs.,
249,549
Butter, "
3,613,890
4,632,711
Cheese, "
652,069
901,296
The value of the agricultural products of 1861 is esti-
mated at $8,021,860.
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING INCREASE OP LIVE STOCK, FROM 1808
TO 1861.
180a 182T. 186t.
Horses 6,763 12,951 28,786
Sheep 75,364 173,731 282,180
owine 27,695 71,482 51,533
Neat Cattle, including
Milch Cows 56,972 110,818
Neat Cattle, exclusive
of Cows 156,857
Milch Cows 86,856
1861.
41,027
382,653
53,217
151,793
110,504
The value of the live stock of Nova Scotia is estimated
at $6,802,399.
A good milch cow costs from $20 to $40. Sometimes
cows of superior breeds sell for $60 and $80.
\
i
688 INDUSTRIAL BESOURCE8.
The best fatted oxen are produced in Kings county.
The next best in the county of Cumberland ; Hants and
Annapolis counties come next.
A pair of fatted oxen of the first quality yield the
owner from $190 to $300 at his own barn-yard. This re-
fers specially to Cornwallis, Kings county.
In the department of agricultural industry, Pictou ranks
first, Colchester second, Cumberland third, Kings fourth,
Annapolis fifth, Inverness sixth, Sydney seventh, Hants
eighth, Lunenburg ninth, Halifax tenth, Cape Breton
(county) eleventh, Yarmouth twelfth, Digby thirteenth,
Victoria fourteenth, Guysborough fifteenth. Queens six-
teenth, Richmond seventeenth, Shelburne eighteenth. It
will be noticed that those counties which rank the lowest
in agricultural, rank the highest in fishing industry.
FisuiNG Industry. — If we except Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia may be safely said to possess the finest fisheries in
the world. There is no part of its coast of 1,000 miles,
where, at one season or another, a profitable fishing may
not be pursued. Its bays and harbors, and inland lakes,
seas, and rivers, abound also with excellent fish.
The following comparative statement of the number of
vessels and boats employed, and men engaged in fishing,
and the quantities of fish cured in Nova Scotia, in 1851
and 1861 respectively, will exhibit the progress being made
in this department :
18BL 1B61.
Vessels 812 900
Boats 6,161 8,816
Men employed 10,394 14,322
Quintals of Dry Fish 198,484 896,425 ,
Barrels of Mackerel 100,047 66,108
Barrels of Shad 8,536 7,649
Barrels of Alewives 6,343 12,565
Barrels of Salmon 1,669 2,481
No. of Smoked Salmon 2,738
Barrels of Herring 63,200 194,170
Boxes of Herring, smoked 15,409 85,657
The only kind of fish in which there is a decrease in the
catch, as compared with 1851, is the mackerel. The migra-
iings county.
Hants and
,lity yield the
^ard. ThiB re-
7, Pictou ranks
Kings fourth,
eventh, Hants
Cape Breton
by thirteenth,
1, Queens six-
jighteenth. It
ank the lowest
industry.
undland, Nova
est lisheries in
)f 1,000 miles,
le fishing may
d inland lakes,
t fish.
the number of
aged in fishing,
Scotia, in 1851
■ess being made
1861.
900
8,816
14,322
896,425 ,
66,108
7,649
12,565
2,481
2,738
194,170
85,557
decrease in the
el. The migra-
PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
689
tory habits of this fish will account for the difference.
230,979 gallons of fish-oil have been manufactured in the
province in 1860. 43,965 nets and seines are reported in
the census of 1861. The value of the vessels, boats, and
nets used in the fisheries of the province is estimated at
$1,780,450. The value of the fish and oil reported in 1861
is estimated at $2,376,721. Halifax ranks first in this de-
partment of industry, Guysborough second, Eichmond
third, Lunenburg fourth, Shelburne fifth, Yarmouth sixth,
Digby seventh. Cape Breton (county) eiglith, Inverness
ninth. Queens tenth, Victoria eleventh, Annapolis twelfth,
Sydney thirteenth. Kings fourteenth, Pictou fifteenth,
Colchester sixteenth, Cumberland seventeenth, Hants
eighteenth.
The set-line or " trawl" fishing is pursued to a large
extent by foreign fishermen, to the serious injury of our
fishing interests. It is maintained by good authorities on
the oubject, that if this method is long persisted in the
banks will be rendered entirely unproductive. Lines
having hooks suspended to them, about three feet apart,
are made to descend nearly to the bottom of the sea, where
the mother fish repose to deposit their spawn. Tliese
baited hooks are seized by these fish, generally the largest,
before they have accomplished the important office of
reproduction. The consequence will inevitably be, the
extermination of that invaluable kind of fish in that most
productive of all regions. Destroy the mother with her
brood, her offspring, and the result is one and inevitabls
in all nature. It is the interest of all governments to put
an instant and peremptory stop to this suicidal practice.
^^-.■■v..-. .^-^»^^,^^f,^-f .;>-.-
J!' ■?!■'■■
fmm
690
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRT.
CHAPTEK YI.
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY.
The geographical position of Nova Scotia is highly favor-
able to commercial pursuits, — and as her natural resources
become more fully developed, there is no doubt her com-
merce will increase indefinitely. It was only in the year
1818 that Halifax and St. John were appointed free ports :
Pictou and Sydney, C. B., in 1828. Now there are sixty
free ports in the province.
The largest portion of the exports of Nova Scotia is
drawn from the fishing and agricultural interests. In 1860
the total value oifish exported, after supplying home con-
sumption, was $3,094,499; in 1854 it was $2,093,415.
The total value of live stock and agricultural products
exported in 1860 was $786,526 ; of lumber, $767,136 ;
products of mines and quarries, $658,257 ; furs, $72,218 ;
manufactures, $69,978 ; vessels, $168,270 ; miscellaneous,
$151,132 ; imported from other countries and re-exported,
$1,019,788 : making the total exports for 1860, $6,787,-
804.
The chief exports to Great Britain consist of ships built
in the province, and squared and sawed timbers. The
West Indies is the principal market for our fish. The
United States is abo an important market for some kinds of
our fish, also for potatoes, coal, gypsum, and freestone. The
trade of Nova Scotia with Canada is rapidly increasing.
Nova Scotia imports the greater part of what she needs
of textile manufactures ; also, hardware, cutlery, pottery,
chinaware, ship-chandlery, chemicals, glassware, &c., from
Great Britain.
Breadstuffs, tea, sugar, tobacco, wood ware, &c., are
largely imported from the United States. The value of
^^^^llikW^'
is liiglily favor-
atural resources
doubt her cora-
n\y in the year
nted free ports :
' there are sixty
Nova Scotia is
erests. In 1860
ying home con-
svas $2,093,415.
iltural products
Iber, $767,136;
; furs, $72,218 ;
; miscellaneous,
and re-exported,
T 1860, $6,787,-
ist of ships built
i timbers. The
' our fish. The
"or some kinds of
i freestone. The
lly increasing.
* what she needs
cutlery, pottery,
sware, &c.,from
ivrare, &c., are
. The value of
^tP
ilRillinPri
a-h:
i
ft
m
ts^
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY.
691
imports from the United States to tlie port of ITalifax
alone, in 1861, was $1,736,879, and of those from Great
Britain to the same port in that year, was $2,222,266 ;
from the British North American provinces, $760,800 ;
the "West Indies, $107,443 ; from all other countries,
$678,571. Every one of the outports import largely from the
United States ; Yarmouth imported goods to the value of
$224,967 in 1861 from the United States, while the value
of all her imports was but $323,597. The " Reciprocity
Treaty" has given a very favorable impetus to our com-
merce with the United States. All unmanufactured
articles, the gi'owth and produce of Nova Scotia, may, by
virtue oi" that treaty, be exported free of duty to the
United States.
The following statement will exhibit the value of the
imports and exports of Nova Scotia from 1852 to 1861 :
Imports.
Exports.
1852,
$5,970,877
14,853,908
1853,
7,085,431
5,393,538
1854,
8,955,410
3,C96,525
1855,
9,413,515
4,820,654
1856,
9,349,160
8,864,790
1857,
9,680,880
6,967,830
1858,
8,075,590
6,321,490
1859,
8,100,955
6,889,130
1860,
8,511,549
6,619,634
1861,
7,613,227
5,774,334
The value of ships exported is not included in the abova
In 1860 that article amounted to 8,842 tons, valued at
$295,054.
VESSELS KNTERED INWARD AT THB PORTS OF NOVA SCOTIA IN 1861.
Vessels. Tons. Men.
Great Britain 194 97,538 6,111
British West Indies 259 81,436 1,916
British North America 2,681 227,596 14,451
United States 2,851 803,638 18,225
Other countries 838 36,555 2,101
Total 6,323 696,763 41,804
44
'^
. ■ 1 '■ ■
ffT""'^r?f"^'-?y '^
m
692
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY.
VESSELS CLEARED OUTWARD AT THE PORTS OF NOVA SCOTIA IK 186L
VcBsels. Tons. Men.
Great Britain 152 68,289 4,262
British West Indies 476 52,890 4,541
British North America 2,655 239,036 14,995
United States 2,509 806,333 15,836
Other countries 297 29,084 1,886
Total 6,089 695,582 41,520
In shipping Nova Scotia takes a high rank, in propor-
tion to her extent and population. It was shown, in an
official report from the governor of the province to the
colonial secretary, in 1853, that Nova Scotia then owned
one-third as much tonnage as France — that she surpassed
the Austrian empire by 2,400 vessels, and by 69,000 tons ;
that she owned 116,000 tons of shipping more than Bel-
gium— 38,449 tons more than the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies — 90,783 more than Prussia. Holland, which once
contested the supremacy of the sea with Great Britain,
owned at that date (1853) but 72,640 tons of shipping
more than Nova Scotia ; Sweden, with a population of
three millions, surpasses Nova Scotia in shipping by only
36,927 tons. At the same date, only six of the United
States of America exceeded Nova Scotia in tonnage, viz.:
Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, and Louisiana.
In 1846, the tonnage of all the British North American
colonies was 252,832 tons. That of Nova Scotia alone
was 141,093 tons — something considerably over the half.
In 1853, the tonnage of Nova Scotia had increased to
189,083 tons. It is now (1861) 248,061 tons. The num-
ber of vessels is 3,258 ; estimated value, $6,487,490.
Ship-Building. — Great facilities for ship-building exist
in Nova Scotia, and it has attracted the capital and indus-
try of many of the inhabitants, from the earliest settle-
ment of the country. Correct statistics, showing the ex-
tent to which this branch of industry was carried on in
earlier years, are not attain; le. The greater number of
vessels built in the province are comparatively small, and
^
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY.
693
adapted to the coasting trade, and trade with the United
States. Many are built, however, at Pugwash, New
Glasgow, Pictou, Sydney, C. B., Shelburne, Windsor, and
other places, of a superior description, and ranging from
300 to 1 ,200 tons ; and they command a ready market in
England and elsewhere abroad.
The following statement will exhibit the extent to which
ship-building has been prosecuted, from 1853 to 1861 :
Tear.
1853,
1854,
1855,
1856,
1857,
1858,
1859,
1860,
1861,
Ko. of Vcgsels.
203
244
236
208
151
283
216
Tonnage.
31,376
52,814
40,469
89,582
i6,'366
20,684
23,634
Value.
$1,557,090
2,546,595
2,240,710
1,852,540
757,900
' '852,831
972,448
Lumbering. — This department of industry is not prose-
cuted to the same extent that it had been some years ago,
in Nova Scotia ; still, however, the products of the forest
form an important part of our exports. Deals, boards,
scantlings, spars, knees, and other ship-timber; hoops,
staves, laths, shingles, and cord-wood, are all comprised
under this head.
There are in Nova Scotia 1,401 saw-mills ; 130 shingle
mills ; 6 lath mills. In 1860, the saw-mills turned out
25,072 M. feet deals ; 46,607 M.' feet pine boards ; 36,422
M. feet spruce and hemlock boards. The return of staves
for the same year is 7,659 M. Timber, 22,592. tons.
The county of Queens takes the lead in this branch of
industry. It saws more than one-half the pine boards
that are sawed in the province. Lunenburg comes next,
and then Digby. Pictou ranks fourth .; it exceeds all the
other counties in hewed timber. Halifax exceeds the
others in staves ; and Cumberland in the quantity of deals.
In the census of 1861, only 507 give themselves as lum-
berers. Many others, no doubt, devote part of their time
WSH' '^
■
\ -,
■
i !, 1
■ it'tU
» • ; ■
n--i\
iv ...
dll
li.
■-( il
il
S'
C94
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY
to lumbering, while they are given in the census as farm-
ers, or carpenters, or laborers.
Manufacturing. — The manufacturing industry of No-
va Scotia is but in its infancy. We are still dependent on
Great Britain and the United States, to a very large ex-
tent, in this department, as has already been indicated
under the head of " Commerce." The position and inex-
haustible natural resources of Nova Scotia, however, war-
rant the expectation that in the course of some years, as
her population increases, and these resources become de-
veloped by the application of skill and industry and en-
terprise and capftal, she will occupy the first position
amongst all her neighbors as a manufacturing country. If
she comes short of this, it will be through lack of energy
and enterprise on the part of her sons. The number of
saw-mills, shingle-mills, and lath-mills, has been already
given under the head of " Lumbering." This class of in-
dustry is usually placed under the head of Manufactures.
In 1851, there were in Nova Scotia 398 grist-mills ; in
1861, 414. Hand looms, in 1851, 11,096; in 1861,
13,230. Cloth fulled in 1851, 119,068 yards; in 1861,
281,709 yards. Cloth not fulled, in 1851, 790,104 yards; in
1861, 1,039,214 yards. Malt liquor manufactured in 1851,
71,076 gallons ; in 1861, 109,867 gallons. The value of
leather manufactured in 1851 was $210,500 ; of the earae
article manutactured ii* 186% $240,386. There is not
much room for comparison with former years in this de-
partment of our provincial industry ; its history is simply
from nihil up to something. That something, however,
is hopeful. In addition to what has been already enumer-
ated,' we can add the following : 77 carding mills, with
116 employes — value of mills, $39,440 ; 3 soap and candle
factories, yalue, $7,000 ; 4 block factories, $1,650 ; 3 axe
factories, $3,130 ; 2 rake factories, $1,400 ; 3 chair facto-
ries, $4,400; 3 cloth factories, $14,800; 1 paper mill,
$1,000 ; 1 tobacco factory, $800 ; 2 nail factories, $6,000;
11 iron foundries, $114,600 ; 10 carriage factories, $19,-
isus as farm*
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY.
69£
940 ; 44 tanneries, $74,600 ; 3 cabinet Victories, $7,100 ;
1 brush factory, $1,200 ; 1 gas factory, $180,000 ; 1 trunk
factory, $300 ; 5 breweries, $46,000 ; 2 joiners' factories,
$14,400 ; 2 brick factories, $8,200; 15 fulling n.iills, $18,-
800 ; 8 shoe factories, $4,000 ; 2 planing factories, $7,000;
1 plaster mill, $400; 1 grind-stone factory, $4,000; 1
coal-oil factory, $1,000; 2 baking factories, $7,000; 1
engine factory, $4,000; 1 pottery, $500; 6 bark-mills,
$7j600; 1 pail factory, $100; various kinds of factories, 12 ;
value, $59,U00. The number of bricks made in 1861 was
7,659 M. ; value, $51,703. The number of grind-stones
made, 46,496 ; value, $44,100. Bushels of lime burnt,
136,848 ; maple sugar made, 249,549 pounds. By the
census of 1861, it appears that 13,516 of our population
are employed in manufacturing.
CHAPTER VII.
PUBLIC WORKS.— CROWN LANDS.— REVENUE, 4o.
Sailwats. — ^The oldest piece of railway in Nova Scotia
is in the county of Pictou, between the Albion Mines and
" the loading ground." It is about eight miles in length ;
it is owned by the General Mining Association, and was
built upwards of twenty years ago.
The Nova Scotia Railways, built and owned by the
province, are of more recent date. They were commenced
in April, 1854-, and completed in December' 15th, 1858.
They consist of a trunk line from Halifax to Truro, and a
branch line to Windsor. The number of miles completed
is 92.75. The distance from Halifax to Truro is about
sixty miles, and from " the Junction " to Windsor about
thirty-three miles. The Windsor branch brings Halifax
into railway communication with the Bay of Fundy ; the
Eastern line, when extended to Pictou, will open railway
f
Ills
^^W^^^
■rm^W'^ysT^m
)k
M
1 m ,
■j^u'm^
-Md-BiAi
696 PUBLIC ■WOBKS, E'fO.
communication with the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The line
from Truro to Pictou is being located. The distance is
forty miles.
The cost to the province of the 92.75 miles already built
may be stated as follows :
Cost of building permanent way, including
sidings, stations, and buildings $3,896,148 86
Cost of locomotives 231,179 00
Cost of rolling stock (as cars) 121,600 00
Total $4,248,927 86
There are on the lines twenty locomotives, ten first-class
cars, eight second-class cars, one hundred and sixty other
cars, two snow-ploughs. The road will compare favorably
with Jiritish railroads, and is superior to the railroads on
this continent, with the exception of portions of the Grand
Trunk line of Canada. The station-houses are built, how-
ever, with a special visw to economy. The railway is
managed by a connnissioner who is a member of the gov-
ernment, and who is responsible for its successful manage-
ment. There are employed under the commissioner a
superintendent of the locomotive department ; a superin-
tendent of the trathc department ; and a general inspec-
tor of upholdence and construction. All these are re-
sponsible to the Commissioner for the management of the
departments committed to them.
The following table will exhibit the revenue of the Nova
Scotia Railroad, for the last three years :
Tear ondlni;
Dec. 81, 1869.
Year cndinii?
Dec. 81, 1S60.
Tear ending
Dec. 81, 1861.
Receipts from all sources,.. $102,872 57 $116,742 89 $120,917 66
Working expenses 111,274 88 96,472 26 94,114 88
$8,397 31 $20,270 63 $26,802 78
In 1859 the road did not pay working expenses ; in
1860, it earned $20,270.63 over and above working ex-
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC.
697
ue of the Nova
63 $26,802 78
expenses ; in
penses ; in 1861, $26,802.78 over working expenses, while
1862 promises to be far in advance of 1861. The rate
for travel per mile is three cents first class, two cents second
class cars ; rate of speed twenty m'-es per hour, including
stoppages. Nova Scotia railway stock has readied as higli
as 108 and 109 in the English market. Parties in England
hold our debentures to the amount of $3,500,000, being
interest at 6 per cent., payable half-yearly, on cost of rail-
ways. The largest proportion of this interest must,
for some years to come, be paid from the general revenue
of the country. The extension of the Trunk line to
the New Brunswick frontier, and onwards through that
province till it unites with the Grand Trunk line of
Canada, will cause this line to bo highly remunerative. It
is highly probable that in the course of 1863, this great
line will be located. This will make Halifax the grand
winter terminus for British North America. The distance
from Halifax to Riviere du Loup (the present terminus of
the Grand Trunk line) i& 530 miles ; of this sixty miles is
already made, that is, from Halifax to Truro, which leaves
only 470 miles. This is by the north shore route. By
the central route the distance is 478 miles ; from which
deduct eighty-two miles already completed, and we have
to be built only 396 miles. Again, there is the St. John
River route, which makes the distance from Halifax to
Riviere du Loup 593 miles, of which 237miles is constructed,
and which leaves 355 miles to be made. Each of these
routes has its advocates in New Brunswick. It has been
agreed at an intercolonial convention to leave the decision
of the matter to a commission consisting of two from
Canada and one from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
respectively — provision being made for the appointment of
an umpire in case of the commissioners failing to agree in
opinion.
Canals. — In the year 1825 the " Shubenacadie Canal"
was commenced. It is still unfinished. It is intended by
means of this canal so to unite the Dartmouth Lakes and
"Tmf^i»f^»p»--,i«(
698
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC.
the Slmbenacadie River, as to connect tlie Halifax harbor
with the Bay of Fundy. It consists of a series of locks
and two inclined planes, one 1,320 feet, the other 500 feet
in length, to be worked by machinery. Tlie locks are
sixty-seven feet in length, seventeen in breadth, with five
feet depth of water. It is very nearly completed.
There is also the " St. Peter's Canal," which is to con-
nect the waters of the Atlantic coast of the Island, with
the great Bras d'Or lake. The whole length of this canal
is to be only 2,300 feet ; its breadth, at water line, fifty
feet ; and depth of water thirteen feet. It is to have one
lock at the St. Peter's Bay termination, and a guard
gate at the Bras d'Or. Length of lock, 120 feet ; width
of gates, twenty-two feet. This canal was commenced in
the autumn of 3S54. The work has been suspended for
Boiiie time.
Steamers. — The line of steamers from which Nova
Scotia derives the greatest advantage is that of the Cunard
Company. These call at Halifax to land and receive pas-
sengers and freight, both from Liverpool to Boston, and on
the return voyage to Liverpool. The freight by these
steamers to Halifax is increasing every year. The finer
description of merchandise, which was wont to be conveyed
in sailing ships, is now almost without exception brought
to Halifax in these steamers. When the great Interco-
lonial Railway is finished, Halifax will undoubtedly have
her weekly line of steamers from England, instead of
fortnightly as at present. The Cunard Company have also
a line of screw steamers, which ply regularly between
Halifax and St, Johns, Newfoundland ; and Halifax and
Bermuda. The steamers to Newfoundland receive a sub-
sidy from the colonial government. There is a steamer
also wliich plies between Halifax, Yarmouth, and Boston.
There is a steamer that makes tri-weekly trips between
Windsor and St. John, N. B. ; also, between Annapolis
Royal End St. John, N. B., and connecting witli Boston
steameid to that city. There is also a line that connects
PUBLIC W0EK8, ETC.
699
B that connects
Pictou with Charlotte Town, Prince Edward Island, She-
diac, N. B., and Quebec. There is one also on the Bras
d'Or lake, and one that plies between Halifax and the
principal gold-fields on the Atlantic coast.
Two little steamboats ply between Pictou town and New
Glasgow, and two others between the city of Halifax and
the town of Dartmouth. The legislature granted the sum
of $7,700, in aid of steamers, packets, &c., in 1860 ; and
$7,240 in 1861.
Roads, Stage Coaches, &c. — The high roads of Nova
Scotia are very numerous, and generally they are good.
Legislative grants are made yearly to aid in opening new
roads, and repairing the great post-roads. The grant for
this object in 1850 was $96,800 ; in 1860 it was $103,855 ;
and in 1861, $100,341 34.
Tlie great roads of the province are : —
From Halifax "Westward to Yarmouth, by the Atlantic
coast, as follows : Halifax to Lunenburg, seventy miles ;
thence to Liverpool, thirty-six miles ; thence to Shelburne,
forty miles ; thence to Yarmouth, fifty -six miles,— making
in all 202 miles from Halifax to Yarmouth. A tri- weekly
Btage-coach runs this line. Another line of highway is
from Halifax to Yarmouth via Windsor, Kentville, Annap-
olis Royal, Digby, and Clare. The distance from Halifax
to Yarmouth by this route is 214 miles. A stage-coach
runs this line three times a week. Eastward from Halifax
we travel sixty miles to Truro by railway ; from Truro to
Amherst (within three miles of the New Brunswick line)
the distance is sixty miles ; from Truro to Pictou the dis-
tance is forty miles. An excellent line of stage-coaches
nm this road daily. From Pictou to Antigonish, fifty
miles ; thence to the Strait of Canseau Ferry, thirty-three
miles. Total from Halifax to Canseau, 188 miles. On
Cape Breton side, from Plaister Cove at Canseau, to Syd-
ney town via South of Bras d'Or, seventy-six miles ; from
Sydney via Sydney mines to Margaree, sixty-four miles ;
from Plaister Cove to Port Hood, thirty miles ; thence to
i ■!
•"•'»l%-f;,<f:"'",T*^...«. :„,
•rf a
hi
m
'i •-
umma
!i
0 M_f
^irll|4;j
700
PUBLIC W0KK8, ETC,
Margaree, forty miles. Another great road runs from
Halifax through Musquodoboit via Quysborough to the
Strait of Canseau. Another from Halifax to Tanjrier.
Sheet Harbor, &c., by the Atlantic coast. Another impor-
tant road runs from Pictou via Eiver John, Tatamogouche,
Pugwash, &c, to Amherst. The cross-roads and by-roada
are too numerous to mention. All those mentioned are
run either by daily, tri-weekly, bi-weekly, or weekly stage-
coaches.
Postal Coj^rMUNicATioN, &c. — ^Nova Scotia has regular
mails from Great Britain only once a fortnight ; witli the
United States we have weekly, and sometimes bi-weekly
postal communication ; with Newfoundland, in summer
we have fortnightly communication, in winter, monthly ;
with Prince Edward Island, bi-weekly in summer, or
during seven months, and weekly, and sometimes only
monthly, in mid-winter; with New Brunswick, bi-weekly
and weekly.
The number of offices under the control of the postmaster-
general, in 1860, was, 1 general post-office, Halifax, 72 cen-
tral offices, and 344 branch or way offices. In 1861, the num-
ber of way offices increased to 380. Tlie number of news-
papers posted at, and delivered at Halifax office during
the year 1860, was 2,080,520 ; in ^ 361, 2,358,824— show-
ing an increase of 278,304. The number of letters of all
kinds sent, received, and delivered in 1860, was 534,922 ;
in 1861, 705,696— increase, 170,774. The number of par-
cels received and sent from Halifax and county post-offices
in 1860, was 627; in 1861, 717— increase, 90. The
amount of money paid through the money-order depart-
ment of the post-office during the last year, was $67,081.90.
This department lias been in existence only two years, in
this province. The net income for 1861, was $47,115.76.
Tlie total expenditure for the same period, $69,444.35^.
In 1860, the length of mail route in existence in the
province was 4,116^ miles ; and the actual distance trav-
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC.
701
died, 751,346 miles. In 1861, the length of route, 4,1 51|
miles ; distance travelled, 809,032 miles.
There are 289 mail contracts made by the postmaster-
general, at an annual cost of $38,604.60.
There is a uniform rate of postage — five cents for let-
ters weighing half an ounce — now established between all
the British North American provinces, with the exception
of Newfoundland.
Electric Telegraphs.— The province of Nova Scotia
contains 1,500 miles of telegraph line, and three sections
of submarine cable, viz. :
Across Pugwash Harbor ^ milo.
" Strait of Canseau 1^ "
" Lenox passage (between 0. B. and the Isle of Madone) . 1 "
Total 3 miles
Tlie lines in the province are owned by the "Nova
ScQ^ia Electric Telegraph Company."
It has fifty telegraph oftices ; fifty-six telegraphists ;
thirty linesmen, and a large number of messenger boys.
All officers of the company are sworn to secrecy. The
rates of tolls for messages of ten words are as follows :
Over any distance under 80 miles 12^ cents.
Over 80 miles and " 160 " 25 "
Over 160 " " " 240 " 37i "
Over 240 " " " 320 " 50 "
Over 320 " " " 400 " 62^ "
All distances over 400 miles 75 "
In proportion to extent and population, the province of
Nova Scotia has a greater extent of telegraph wire, a
greater number of offices, and the t&viS is lower, than in
any other country in the world.
The first line in Nova Scotia was erected from Halifax
to the frontier of New Brunswick, by the provincial gov-
ernment, in 1848. Another line was built by a local com-
-rtf^i'i^-----
>*^'^--f.„^. ?
702
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC.
pany, between Truro and Pictoii, in 1849. lii 1851, the
legislature chartered the " Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph
Company." This company purchased the government line
from Halifax to New Brunswick, as well as the one from
Truro to Pictou ; and they constructed nearly all the ex-
isting lines between that date and 1856. In 1860, all the
lines of the company were leased for fifty years to the
" American Telegraph Company" — a wealthy organiza-
tion, which controls a great proportion of the telegraphs
on the American continent.
Ckown Lands. — Only a little over the half of the area
of Nova Scotia has been granted, or alienated from the
crown. The price charged for crown lands in Nova Sco-
tia is about forty cents per acre. The following statement
will show the quantity of granted and ungranted land in
the province :
Quantity al-
ready granted.
Kemalnlng
ungranted.
Estimated as
available for
settlement.
Lands open for
settleineuts.
f
Nova Scotia proper.
Cape Bretou
Acres.
4,935,349i
813,543^
Acres.
4,112,384i
l,207,438i
Acres.
650,664^
856,676i-
Acres.
3,412,384j
777,438^
Total
5,748,893
5,319,8221
918,3401
4,189,822J
The gross proceeds of crown lands sold during 1860, was
$20,846.28. In 1861, $16,598.73.
Kkvenue and ExPENorruKE. — The year 1861 shows a
decrease in the revenue of Nova Scotia. This is owing,
undoubtedl}', to the American war. Nova Scotia has suf-
fered probably more from this war than any of the British
North American colonies.
Free trade is the policy of Nova Scotia. It has no pro-
tection duties. Its ad valorem, duties are lower than those
of any neighboring countries.
The following statement will exhibit the gradual growth
of our provincial revenue :
mmm
I I I '■*!
lated land in
d as
for
It.
Lands open for
settlciiieuts.
t
Acres.
3,412,384j
777,438i
m
4,189,8221
1861 shows a
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 703
Tears. Revenue. Tear*. Expendltnres.
1806, $82,309 50 1766, $19,464 00
1825, 196,455 65 1800, 22,160 00
1836, 185,864 00 1810, 40,660 00
1846, 331,104 00 1815, 52,860 00
1851, 433,120 00 1851, 423,742 00
1852, 485,582 00 1852, 482,895 00
1853, 510,192 00 1853, 458,712 00
1854, 752,642 00 1854, 776,802 00
1855, 833,069 00 1855, 783.052 00
1856, 691,015 00 1856, 696,397 00
1857, 726,666 00 1857, 793,809 00
1858, 716,025 00 185«, 737,108 00
1859, 698,938 00 1859, 690,595 00
1860, 870,055 00 1860, 852,133 00
This revenue is derived from import, excise, and light
duties, from the crown lands, the mines, the provincial
railway, and the post-office department. The expendi-
ture is for the payment of all public officers, the interest
of the public debt, grants for roads and bridges, educa-
tion, agriculture, subsidies for steamers, mail packets, and
ferries, militia, &c. ,
The estimated expenditure for 1861 was $870,771.
Public Debt, CUitRENCT, &c. — The public debt has been
mainly incurred in constructing the provincial railways.
It is almost wholly represented by works of great public
utility. At the close of the year 1860, the whole liability
of the province was $4,9015305 42, viz :
Provincial Bonds $4,000,000 00
Provincial Notes 447,458 00
Savings Bank 453,847 42
Total .' $4,901,305 42
The first provincial currency was eighteen shillings
sterling to the pound currency, or £100==£90. The next
change made the English shilling equal to one shilling
and three-pence sterling, or sixteen English shillings equal
to £1 currency.
In common with New Brunswick and Canada, Nova
Scotia has recently adopted the decimal mode of computa-
i
■^
m
\
k i-f ■■ ■ ■
704
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC.
tion. Dollars and cents have taken the place of pounds,
shillings, and pence, with us. In Nova Scotia, the British
Bhilling is twenty-five cents — the British Florin fifty
cents — the British crown $1 25 — and the British gold
sovereign or pound, $5.
The treasury issues £1 Nova Scotia currency, or $4 and
$5 notes. The banks issue £5 or $20 notes and upwards ;
but they are not permitted to issue notes of a less sum
than $20. The par of Exchange ou England is 12i per
cent.
The oldest bank in the province is the " Halifax Banking
Company," besides which, there are the " Bank of Nova
Scotia," the " Bank of British North America," and the
" Union Bank." There has never yet occurred an in-
stance of a Nova Scotia bank having suspended pay
ment. The new premises of the Union Bank, when com-
pleted, will be the finest building in Halifax.
CHAPTER YlH.
EDUCATION AND P:DUCATI0NAL INSTITUTIONS.
The history of the progress of education in Nova Scotia
does not much differ from that of its progress in the neigh-
boring states and provinces. Its progress has been in the
face of many and formidable difliculties. The early settlers
had to conquer the forest, build houses, make roads, and
struggle hard to keep want and grim poverty out of their
humble dwellings. They could neither afford to build
school-houses nor pay schoolmasters — if they could be had.
They had to teach their children at their own firesideg,
after the toils of the day were ended, without the aid of
many books, and often when they could not afibrd the
luxury of lamp or candle to read by. Two of the most
distinguished statesmen and orators Nova Scotia ever
reared, were thus taught to read. On more than one oc-
casion we have heard one of them relate, for the encour
^Uiii^j^^^
m
M-ica," and the
nk, when com-
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC.
705
agement of the young of his native city, how on the long
winter 'evenings, at his father's knee, he ^^tudied history
and literature with no other light than tliat furnished by
the good old-i'ashioned fireplace. In the year 17S7, there
was not a single school or school-house in what is now the
populous and highly educated county of Pictou. Now
there are 116 school-hoiises in that county, and as many
schools, many of which are of a high order. Seventy
years ago there were not thirty school-houses in all Nova
Scotia, and the majority of those were but log-houses
of the humblest description. Now there are upwards
of twelve hundred school-houses, many of which are
elegant, commodious, and well' furnished structures.
Thirty years ago the legislative grant for the support of
education was only $16,000. In 1861 it was $66,749.02,
while that contributed by voluntary subscription was
nearly three times that amount.
Sixty and even forty years ago, an old soldier, who could
read, write, and '' cipher as far as the rule of three" — a
broken-down merchant, or an accountant, whose habits
had become so unsteady that he could no longer serve
witli efficiency in the counting-house, would be hired as a
schoolmaster. Now it is only the graduates of our provin-
cial normal college for the training of teachers, that can
command any of our best common schools. It is not
half a century since the " New England Primer," " Dil-
worth," " The Collection," " Tutor's Assistant," \\\e ferule
and the hirch, were accounted the orthodox and all-potent
instrumentalities for teaching " the young idea how to
shoot," and for restraining and correcting it, should it
venture " to shoot" on its own account in any forbidden
direction. At present our schools are supplied with the
latest and best British and American text-books, and cor-
poral punishment, in the best of them, is resorted to but
very seldom, and that in extreme cases.
Common Schools. — The province of Nova Scotia, in-
cluding Cape Breton, is divided into thirty-three school
"
H
;■■ h t
■ ;f^
'1
;;:
■ 1
h1 tr,
i-..
jt.tjji
W S
'- ';■
■ \\
;! ■
706
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETO,
districts, each Imving a distinct board of school commis-
sioners, whose duty it is to examine and license teachers,
determine what shall be the nnmber and wliat the bound-
aries of the schools, and distribute tlie government allow-
ance among the several schools entitled to participate in
it. There are 1,227 school-houses in tlie province, and
1,175 schools were in operation in 1857 (the only edu-
cational census taken) ; G85 of this number were taught
by male teachers, 520 by females. -A bout one to every
seven of the population is attending school : — a small pro-
portion when compared with some of the New England
and Middle States, where the proportion is one to four, and
in three of the States, Maine, New Hampshire, and New
York, it is one to three. There are school libraries under
the direction of every board ; 6,844 vols, were in circu-
lation in 1857. The number of text-books reported was
6,360 ; wall maps, 2,521 ; blackboard , 640 ; globes, 56.
Amount contributed for common-school education by
voluntary contributions, $128,2:^^2.22 ; by the government,
,$53,519.25. Maximum salary of common-school teachers,
$600; average salary, $180; average cost of each pupil
per annum, $2.53. The best common schopls are in Pic-
tou, Colchester, and Kings.
Grammar Schools. — There were forty-four grammar
schools in the province, by the late educational census.
The winter attendance was 1,476, and the summer, 1,738.
The number studying the classics and mathematics was
1,074. The support from the people, $9,814.09; from gov-
ernment, $3,274.95. Latin, French, mathematics, includ-
ing algebra and agricultural chemistry, are taught in
the grammar schools, in addition to the branches taught
usually in the common schools.
Academies. — There are six academies at present in
Nova Scotia, inclusive of SackvjUe Academy, N. B. All
of them, with the exception of Pictou Academy, are under
the control of some one religious denomination.
The Windsor Academy, or Collegiate School, which is
ool commis-
se teachers,
the bound*
ment allow-
irticipato in
ovince, and
le only edu-
kvere taught
me to every
a small pro-
ew England
to four, and
;e, and New
)rarie8 under
ere in cireu-
reported was
globes, 5G.
iducation by
government,
lool teachers,
•f each pupil
.8 are in Pic-
)ur grammar
tional census,
immer, 1,738.
hematics was
09 ; from gov-
[latics, includ-
re taught in
anches taught
it present in
y,I5.B. All
my, are under
on.
liool, which is
■<ti\'
>»»'
1 -
irvf^
J . , i
I
iitia--
r W •
m ;
'Ofi^ •■ .'ATIONAL WaiTrtTTtOX,
fxainme >*"<'
Tiuinher
rihiite' tin
'titled
\\\\\'') I ration ji. i^-.j* .
V..-. ....I. > . w-,.ii taken ; J ■■■■.) of \)nV >.-'«. h.-v
br m:ilc toricherii, 520 by t'emaU'
! : ri;. .)v»puiiition it* attt*mline; w^hn.
I portion wlien C'^rnpared
I and Middle States, whero the pruporti
' the Stfttes, ]!i' ' ' • v Jiuuip.-^ii
. ,> one
i'tinTi
. r.lio g!/- >
M Uii ;-.;i'a ; -n (;< ■:uiMMi-Schoo.
, ,,. , .„.. -tlarv, $1S0; average co»t of (..■
:i^Tium, )fti\53. 'r!u» bpst common tcb.oplti an
4
Bcb' uviiictt, by t!
Tiiu Vinior atundauce was ' '
•Ti.. , .v,y,|)^>r etndjiiifr tbc
^ Tlie support from "h*
■nAaent, $3,5^74 ;;
algebr ' ascriculti:
^.raniTnar seb' ■
■ in the coiniuun boU'Aas.
riMiTiS.— There afe ' •
"tia, incbislvo of S.- .
'■' the eXcoptinn of ?
fi^rty-four
dtlucation:
■' '• sumiji'
iatliein-:
• ': 4.09 , u
ernati! -
oraucli'
L
Sciiool,
f
4
1^'
^
I
:s
X
w
ii§-
lir^'^'.Tii^
(rt'«
1
i
1 '. --^m -
vMP : ■•■• ■
WFW. ,, '
1-
F$'. ,
•
y^
EDUCA.TIONAL INSTmJTIONS, ITTO.
707
i
the oldest, is under the direction of the Episeopah'ans. It
has three teacliers. The Pictou Academy comes next in
point of age, and first, perhaps, in point of fame. It was
started at the early part of this century, under the direc-
tion of the distinguished Dr. McCulloch, and gave a
powerful impetus to the cause of a thorough and sound
education in the province. For many years it was under
the control of the Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia.
At present it has but two teachers, and is only a high
school for the town of Pictou.
The Ilorton Academy^ at Wolfville, comes next in poinfe
of age. It is under the control of the Baptists. It has a
principal and two assistants.
The Sacl'ville Academy is under the control of the- Wegu
leyan Methodist body, and is equally patronized aiul' su|>-
ported by the provinces of Nova Gcotia and New Bi'uns-
wick. It has male and female departments^ The male
department has seven teachers ', the fern ate- department,
nine teacliers.
The Preslyterian Academy^ in Halifax, was started in
1847, in connection with the Free Chuifch. It h9& four
teachers.
The Arichat Academy^ in the Isle of Madame, C. B., is
in connection with the Roman Catholics. It has three
teachers.
The Sackville Academy stands, for theWesleyan Meth-
odist body, instead of a college, theological hall, and
preparatory high school. All the other academies enu-
merated are but preparatory high schools.
CoLLKGES. — There are six institutions in the province of
Nova Scotia that go by the name of colleges. The oldest
and best endowed of these is King's College^ at Windsor.
It was commenced in 1788-9. From that date till about
twelve years ago i*^ ^ ad annually received from the pro-
vincial government a grant of $1,777.66. At present the
annual grant is $1,000. It has/v« professors. It is under
the control of the Episcopal Church. It was chartered in
45
I*
ly'^f'^ff,^.
\''^k^§
' t 'f. •■■A.
^h'iwr -il'/i
7;^v^|:pv,ji|,^
708
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC.
1802, by George III., and has the Archbishop of Canter-
bury for its patron.
Acadia College is in "Wolfville, in Kings county. It is
under the control of the Baptist denomination. It has
four professors — one theological, and three for all the
other branches taught. $1,000 of provincial aid, that was
formerly given to this college, is now given annually to
the academy in the same place and connection.
The Presbyterians have two colleges at present, — a
theological college in Halifax, with three professors ; a lit-
erary and classical college at Truro, with thi'ee professors
and one tutor. These institutions are endowed, by the
liberality of the body with which they are connected, to
the amount of $56,000. Arrangements are in progress by
which the two may be consolidated.
Goreham College, in Liverpool, Queens county, was set
up hy the liberality of the late Mr. Goreham of that place,
in connection w'th the orthodox Congregational body.
The buildings were destroyed by fire a few years since, and
have not been rebuilt.
St. Marges College a theological school, in the Roman
Catholic connection. Tlie number of professors, &c., is not
made known to the general public. It receives $1,000
annually from the provincial government. It is situated
in Halifax.
St. Francis Xavier^s College is in the town of Atigo-
nish, in the county of Sydney. It has five professors;
three theological, and two for other departments. It is
under the control of the Roman Catholic body, and re-
ceives $1,000 from the government annually.
Dalhousie College is in the city of Halifax. It is a
handsome edifice, built of fieestone. It was built under
the direction, and mainly through the influence, of the
Earl of Dalhousie, when he was governor of the province ;
he procured $39,000 out of the Castine fund for its per-
manent endowment, and induced the legislature to grant
$12,000 towards the erection of the building. It was in-
'"*-»i*i4j,-:.
liop of Canler-
EDUCATIONAL INSTITrTroNS, ETC.
709
corporated in 1820, and was to be conducted on the model
of the University of Edinburgh. Several attempts have
been made to set it into operation, but hitherto without
much success; the main hindrance being the existence of
80 many denominational institutions under the name of
colleges. In the mean time the capital endowment fund
has been so well managed by the governors of the college,
that from $39,000 it has increased to about $60,000.
Tiiere is the prospect at present of the Presbyterians and
Congregational ists, and perhaps one or two other denomi-
nations, combining their several secular colleges with this
institution, and thus out of the whole forming one grand
provincial university — each denomination to maintain its
own theological institute, and the provincial grants that
were wont to be given to these, to be given to the university.
The province has no medical or law school or college,
nor a single professorship devoted to these branches in any
of the existing colleges. This clamant w^ant will be sup-
plied in that university that is to he.
Normal College and Model Schools. — These are sit-
uated in the town of Truro, Colchester county, and are,
as near as may be, in the centre of the province. They
are provincial institutions. The act for the establishment
of the Normal College passed the legislature in 1854 ; and
the Rev. Alexander Forrester, D. D., was appointed prin-
cipal of the institution, and superintendent of education,
by the governor in council, in tiie spring of 1855 ; and
opened the Normal College in November of the same year.
The Model Schools were opened in June, 1857. There
are five teachers in the Normal College, and six in the
Model Schools. There is a model farm attached to these,
which is worked under the direction of the principal. The
annual cost of these institutions, and of the whole educa-
tional supervision of the province, is only $4,680. The
Normal College has already trained about 500 teachers,
of whom 230 have taken
certificates.
gramnuir-school and first-class
31-1 .ij
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710
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC.
The establishment of these institutions has been an im-
portant era in the history of education in Nova Scotia.
They have been a very decided success. The natural or
training system is that pursued. The mechanical^ ex-
planatory, and objective systems are made use of only in so
far as they enter into the full working out o^ the one
selected. The Model School is conducted on the most
approved graded method, having three departments,
primary, intermediate, and high-school, each with its
own regular teacher. Vocal music and physical exer-
cise are very happily intermingled with the severer busi-
ness of the school. There is a very great improvement
in the furniture of school-rooms throughout the whole
province since the establishment of the Model Schools;
also in the quality of the education imparted to the young.
Adequate support is the great want of our common and
grammar schools, at presen . The public mind is steadily
setting in for a system of general assessment of property
and income for the support of schools ; the present method
— voluntary subscriptions — being found in many sections
of the country very inefficient. This appears from the
startling disclosures of the late census (1861). It appears
from the census, that while in some districts every man,
woman, and child who is able to speak can read, and nearly
all can write ; yet that when the province is taken as a
whole, there are, between the ages of five and fifteen
years, 36,430 who cannot read, and 45,012 who cannot
write; while there are, over the age of fifteen years,
49,430 who cannot read, and 65,444 who cannot write;
making in all, 85,860 illiterate persons in the province.
This is a state of matters which no patriotic Christian mind
can contemplate without the deepest concern for the future
of the country. It may be proper to state that a few thou-
sands may be deducted from one of the above items, when it
is borne in mind that children in the rural districts of Nova
Scotia, generally, do not attend school or learn to read and
write till they are seven and often eight years of age.
■*^^*«4iAlikill
mmm
ECCLE8IASTICAL CONDITION, ETC.
711
iNsnTUTiON FOR Deaf AND DuMB. — TIiis institution is bnt
in its infancy. It wascstablishud in 1858, under the present
highly efficient superintendence. It has very commodious
premises, in a very healthy and sightly position in tliQ city
of Halifax. It derives its support from three sources :
the contributions of the benevolent — fees from the pupils,
when the parents are not poor, and legislative grants from
the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The
whole income of this institution for 1861 was $3,691.85.
$2,000 of this sum was from the legislature of Nova Scotia,
and $80 from that of New Brunswick. The attendance
for the year 1861 was forty-four pupils, thirty of whom
were males and fourteen females : eight of this number
were from New Brunswick, the remain'iig thirty-six from
Nova Scotia. The system of instruction is emphatically
t/te natural system. The pupils are taught reading, writ-
ing, English composition, arithmetic, geography, history,
and the principles of Christianity, as taught in the Bible,
with remarkable success. There is also an industrial de-
partment in this school, both for boys and girls, where no
small amount of work is very skilfully and cheerfuUv
performed. The institution is managed by five directors,
a secretary, treasurer, ]>rincipal, and assistant teachers ; a
matron, physician, dentist, and a committee of eleven
ladies. The Right Hon. the Earl of Mulgrave is patron,
and lady Mulgrave patroness of the institution. The Rev.
Mr. Cochran, the secretary, was mainly instrumental in
starting this school. Its present high state of efficiency is
owing to the indefatigable labors of the principal, J. Scott
Hutton, Esq.
CHAPTER IX.
ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION OF THE PROVINCE.
Nova Scotia does not want for religious denominations
or plpces cf worship. ITiere are 22 denominations and
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712
ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION, ETC.
831 places of worship. Tliis gives a church for every 40C
^f the population. It is true that many of the buildings,
called churches, are not such as to accommodate 400, but
many others again are buildings that can comfortably seat
500,*800, 1,000, and in some cases 2,000.
All religious denominations are considered equal in the
eye of the law ; in other words, there is no church or re-
ligious sect established by civil enactment in Nova Scotia,
or in any of the lower provinces of British America.
The Episcopal Church. — This denomination was at one
time established by law in Nova Scotia. The law which
gave it the supremacy in matters of religion has been re-
pealed, and it is now on the same level with the other
churches. It has 47,744 adherents in Nova Scotia and
Cape Breton. It has 139 places of worship, and 64 clergy-
men? The Episcopal bishop of Nova Scotia exercises
jurisdiction over the Episcopal church in Prince Edward
Island. This denomination has hitherto derived much of
its support from the liberality of the Society for Propa-
gating Reh'gion in Foreign Parts. There is at present a
very creditable movement among the laity of the body, to
raise an endowment fund for the permanent support of
religion in that connection.
Thk Presbyterian Church. — Under this may be in-
cluded three different bodies, viz. : the Presbyterian churcli,
which has 69,456 adherents, 144 places of worship, and 88
ordained clergymen ; the Church of Scotland in Nova
Scotia, which has 19,063 adherents, 25 places of worship,
and 20 ordained clergymen ; and the Reformed Presbyte-
rian Church, which has (by late census) 236 adherents
(ought at least to be double that number), 8 places of wor-
ship, and 5 ordained clergymen.
The Roman Catholic Church. — In the number of ad-
herents this body ranks next to the Presbyterians. The
number is 86,281 ; places of worship, 121 ; clergy, 42. It
is under the control of the Archbishop of Halifax. It has
two diocesan bishops, that of Halifax and Arichat. It
S {• '«:
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ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITTON, ETC.
713
for every 40C
he buildings,
date 400, but
ifurtably seat
equal in the
church or re-
Nova Scotia,
merica.
on was at one
le law which
has been re-
ith the other
va, Scotia and
and 64 clergy-
otia exercises
rince Edward
•ived much of
3ty for Propa-
s at present a
3f the body, to
3nt support of
is may be in-
^terian church,
rorship, and 88
land in Nova
ces of worship,
•med Presbyte-
236 adherents
i places of wor-
nnmber of ad-
lyterians. The
clergy, 42. It
[alifax. It has
d Arichat. It
owns some of the finest church buildings in the prov-
ince.
The Baptist CHURcn,— The Associated Baptists have
55,336 adherents, 182 places of worship, and 83 clergy-
men. Other Baptists have 7,605 adherents, 34 places of
worship, and 15 clergymen.
The Wesley AN Methodist Church. — ^Thisbody is under
the superintendence of the Eastern British North Amer-
ican Affiliated Conference. It is a branch of the British
Conference, and includes under its supervision the whole
of the lower provinces, as well as Bermuda. The president
is nominated by the colonial body. Its adherents in
Nova Scotia are 34,055 ; places of worship, 136 ; clergy, 54.
The Congregational Church. — This body has 2,183
adherents, 11 places of worship, and 10 clergymen.
The Lutheran Church has 4,382 adherents, 4 places of
worship, and 3 clergymen.
The Universalhts have 846 adherents, 2 places of wor-
ship, and 1 clergyman.
There are 158 Quakers; 112 Bible Christians; 27 Mor-
mons ; 13 Swedenborgians ; 143 Morisonians, or E. U. ;
46 Sandemanians ; 32 Carapbellites ; and 3 Deists.
The British and Foreign Bible Society has a branch in
Nova Scotia. Its headquarters are in Halifax, but it has
numerous auxiliary branches throughout the province.
There are five Young Men's Christian Associations in the
province. The one in Halifax has an excellent library
and reading-room, and has a course of twelve lectures, of
a very high order, during the winter months. There is a
mission to the Mic Mac Indians of the lower provinces,
which is su})ported by all evangelical denominatiotis in
common. The New Testament has been translated into
the Mic Mac, through its means. The Presbyterians
maintain 4 missionaries in the South Sea Islands. The
Baptists at one time maintained a missionary in Hindu-
stan ; but their agent having fallen a victim to the climate,
the mission lias been abandoned by them. No other
*•■ .
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714
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE.
denomination has as yet engaged in foreign missionary
enterprise.
In Pictou and Colcliester counties, the Presbyterians
greatly predominate. In the western counties, especially
Kings and Annapolis, the Baptists and Wesleyans prevail.
In the Island of Cape Breton, the Presbyterians and
Roman Catholics are about in equal numbers. In Hal-
ifax, the Episcopalians and Roman Catholics prevail ; in
Hants, the Episcopalians and Presbyterians ; in Cumber-
land, the Wesleyans ; in Lunenburg, the Lutherans. Con-
troversy between religious bodies has been at discount,
for some years past. Christian benevolence and denomi-
national courtesy are manifestly on the increase.
CHAPTER X.
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROYINOB.
It is both interesting and instructive to trace the polit-
ical progress of Nova Scotia, for the last one hundred and
fifty years. From absolute despotism it has passed,
during that interval, into constitutional government, — the
freest, the most equitable, and, withal, the least costly in
the civilized world. From the first settlement of the
province till the year 1V19, its government was vested
solely in the governor, and, in his absence, in the lieutenant-
governor or commander-in-chief The seat of government
was at Annapolis Royal. In 1719, Governor Phillips
received instructions from the crown to choose a council
of twelve, who should advise with him in regulating
the affairs of the province ; he was further directed to
regulate himself by the instructions of the governor of
Virginia in cases of emergency, and until a legislative
assembly should be formed. The names of the first council
of Nova Scotia are : John Doncett, Lawrence Armstrong,
Paul Mascarine, Cyprian Southack, John Harrison, Arthur
Savage, John Adams, Hibbert Newton, William Skeen,
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE,
716
gn missionary
William Sheriff, Peter Boudrie, and Gideon Phillips. They
were all officers of the garrison or public departments, with
the exception of Mr. John Adams. From 1719,till 1749, the
governor with this council — both appointed by the crown —
combined at once the legislative, judicial, and executive
functions of civil government. They had absolute power
in all cases, except in so far as they were restrained by
the general principles of English law. In 1749, on the
arrival of Governor Cornwallis, the seat of government
was removed to the newly formed town of Halifax. lie
had instructions to erect commission courts of justice.
He erected three courts. The first was a Court of Ses-
The second was a County Court, invested with
Bions.
powers similar to the Court of King's Bench, Common
Pleas, and Exchequer, in England. The third was a Court
of Assfee and General Jail Delivery, in which the governor
and the council for the time being sat as judges. In 1752
the County Court was abolished, and the Court of Common
Pleas erected in its place. The General Court of Assize
was abolished in 1754, and the Supreme Court established
in its place. Jonathan Belcher, Esq., was appointed chief
justice of this court the same year.
In the month of May, 1758, Governor Lawrence laid
before his council his majesty's instructions for the elec-
tion of the first represertative assembly for Nova Scotia.
It was then resolved, by the governor in council, " That
a house of representatives of the inhabitants thereof, in
conjunction with his majesty's governor, or commander-
in-chief for the time being, and his majesty's council for
the said province, be the civil legislature thereof."
Tliere were sixteen members " elected for the province at
large," Any elector voting for one of these sixteen mem-
bers was compelled to vote for the other fifteen. There
were two elected for the townsliip of Lunenburg, and four
for the township of Halifax. The whole assembly con-
sisted of twenty-two members : eleven, besides the speaker,
constituted a quorum. The first meeUng of the fi^rst
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716
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PKOVINCB.
r€prese7itative assembly of Nova Scotia was on the second
day of October, 1758. Robert Sanderson, Esq., was cho-
sen speaker of this first assembly.
In 1761 a new assembly was elected, consisting of twenty-
four members. Tiie province was then divided into four
counties — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolis, and Kings —
each returning two members ; and into seven townships —
Halifax, Lunenburg, Annanolis, Horton, Cornwallis, Fal-
mouth, Liverpool — each sending two members, with the
exception of Halifax, which sent four.
The Pkesent Constitdtion of the Province. — The
province had not a legislative council distinct from the
executive council till the year 1838. Hitherto the council
deliberated with closed doors. From this date the legis-
lative council sat with doors open to the public. In 1841
" responsible government" was inaugurated in Nova€cotia.
It was not fully established, however, till the parliamentary
session of 1847-8. The departmental system was then fully
acted upon for the first time.
The highest authority is vested in the Lieutenant- Gov- .
ej'nor^ who acts as the representative of royalty. He is
styled lieutenant-governor, as being nominally subordi-
nate to the governor-general of British North America.
The governor is surrounded by an executive council of
nine persons, appointed by the crown from the legislative
council and house of representatives; these are his sworn
advisers, in the exercise of his legislative and adminis-
trative duties. They are responsible to the people for the
acts of his adtninistration. That is one of the peculiariticb
of responsible government. I^ive of the members of the
executive council, in accordance with the existing consti-
tution, are heads of departments : the attorney -general,
solicitor-general, provincial secretary, financial secretary,
and receiver-general.
The Legislative Council is appointed by the crown. It
consists of twenty-one members. They choose their own
president, subject to the approval of the crown. They are
«r'-.
^^^vltfjii^.
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE.
717
to US instead of peers. Tliey hold their seats for life, if
they do not become insolvent. They are magistrates with-
in the province.
Tiie Ilouse of Representatives (iOix\^\?,i9, of fifty-five mem-
bers, who are elected once in fonr years. They represent
eighteen connties. Some counties are subdivided into dis-
tricts ; others have townships. Universal suffrage is the
law of Nova Scotia, subject to the following restrictions ;
The elector must be twenty-one years of age ; nnist be
nutive-born, or a naturalized subject of Great Britain. lie
must be a resident one year in the county, district, or town-
ship in which he votes. ^The members of this house must
have a property qualification, and must take the oath of
allegiance before they take their seats. The members of
both houses are paid $4 per diem each, with travelling ex-
penses during the sitting of Parliament.
The salaries of the oflicers on the civil list, authorized by
law, amount to $52,365. This is inclusive of $0,415 of
pensions paid to retired officials. There is usually voted
yearly, in addition to the above, $29,680 for clerks and
contingencies.
Laws and Cotjrts of Justice. — ^The laws and forms of
judicial procedure of Nova Scotia are founded on those
of England, while the common law of England is the
law of Nova Scotia, where the case is not otherwise pro-
vided for by special provincial enactment. The body
of local enactments has been recently revised and consoli-
dated under the supervision of the provincial government.
The work is known by the name of "Revised Statutes."
The punishment of death is limited by the law of Nova
Scotia to the crimes of treason and murder.
Justice's Court. — This is the lowest order of courts for
the trial of civil causes. There are 1,412 justices of the
peace in Nova Scotia. Each magistrate has jurisdiction
throughout the whole county in which he resides. They
can adjudicate in civil causes to the amount of forty dol-
lars. In criminal matters their powers are very similar to
I
I
■ t
718
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE.
that of the same class of officers in England. Tliey can
fine and cotntnit to tlie county jail for petty oftences, and
bind over to keep the peace, or appear for trial at the Su-
preme Court, for f^raver offences. They usually issue war-
rants for the appearance of ofi'eiiders against the peace.
General Sessions of the peace are held annually in each
county, a'.d in some counties twice in the year. These are
composed of justices of the peace and other officials, for
the transaction of county business. They are presided over
by the Gustos Rotulorum of each county.
The Court of Probate is a county court, whi(;h has the
custody of all wills, and disposes of tl " estates of deceased
persons. The judge of this court, wh is usually a barris-
ter of good standing, practises at the l \ but ca inot be a
member of Parliament.
The Supreme Court is by far the most important in
Nova Scotia. It has civil and criminal jurisdiction in the
highest causes. I*" is the only criminal court in the prov-
ince. It has original jurisdiction in all civil causes over
twenty dollars, and is the court of appeal from the decision
of justices' courts. The province is divided into four cir-
cuits, and the Supreme Court holds its sitting twice a year
in every county of the province for the trial of civil and
criminal causes. It sits in Halifax twice in the year as a
court of equity, the Court of Chancery, which once ex-
isted in Nova Scotia, having been abolished, and its juris-
diction transferred to this court. It is presided over by a
chief-justice and four assistant judges. These judges are
appointed by the governor in council, and they hold office
for life. Their appohitment must receive the royal sanc-
tion before they can be considered as fixed in office. Their
salaries are fixed upon the civil list of the province.
The Court of Marriage and Divorce is composed of
the lieutenant-governor, the executive council, one of the
judges of the Supreme Court, a register, advocate, and
proctor. It has full jurisdiction over all matters relating
to marriage and divorce.
'■^..).
■Rpapi
EABLT HISTORY OF NEW BUUNSWICK.
'19
Tlie Court of Vice- Admiralty includes Canada and all
the lower provinces within its jurisdiction. The jijovernor-
general of British North America is the vice-admiral, and
Alexander Stewart, C. B., the judge of this court. It has
surrogates, procurators, and advocates in all the British
provinces. Its bank of admiralty deposits is the Bank of
British North America.
The Court of Error consists of the governor and coun-
cil. Suits where the amount of the judgment is not less
than $1,200, may be brought into this court. Cases for the
commutation of capital punishment are also brought before
the governor in council by petition. The last appeal is to
the queen in council. It is the policy of the British gov-
ernment not to interfere with any local matters in the
colonies. We are instructed to make what laws we deem
proper, and to appoint whom we choose to administer our
laws.
CHAPTER XL
GENERAL CIVILIZATION.— SOCIAL PROGRESS.— LITERATURE, 4o.
Geeat progress has been made in every section of Nova
Scotia, during the last half century, in all that makes life
comfortable and agreeable. The little, rude log-house of
two, or at best three apartments, lias passed away, to make
place for the snug white cottage of at least six or seven
rooms, besides the kitchen, or the fine stately two-story
house, with ten, twelve, or more apartments. Barns and
outhouses have improved in a corresponding manner. The
hand-mills, or "querns," of seventy years ago, have given
place to excellent grist-mills, propelled by water-power or
steam. Saw-mills, shingle-mills, carding-mills, dyeing-
mills, foundries, and factories, have increased proportion-
ately.
Churches and school-houses of an improved style have
sprung up in every bjttlement. Temperance halls and
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GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC.
other county and township public buildings are quite nu-
merous in proportion to the population.
There are 58,215 dwelling-houses in Nova Scotia. The
city of Halifax contains only 2,635 of the a'uove number.
There are 63,293 farms and outhouses. The number of
stores and shops is 3,322 ; of that number the city of Hali-
fax has 422. There are forty-nine temperance halls in the
province, valued at $43,340. Nine of the number are in
Hants county, and eight in Kings county. Tliere are only
two counties without a temperance hall, viz. : Richmond
and Victoria. There are ninety-three public county ard
township buildings, estimated at $984,160.
The vast improvements made in the mode of travelling,
and in the mail communication of the province, have been
already noticed. Parties are still living who can remem-
ber when there was only a weekly mail between Halifax
and Pictou, and when that mail was carried by one man,
on his back, in a knapsack, making a journey of one hun-
dred miles on foot. Now there is a daily mail to and from
Pictou.
Towns AND Tillages. — The oldest town in Nova Scotia
is Annapolis Royal. From the earliest settlement of the
country until the city of Halifax was built, this town was
the capital of the province. It was the head-quartcs of the
forces of France and England, as they alternately possessed
the country. The conquest of " Port Royal " was, in those
times, considered the conquest of the whole province. It
is k small town still, and is not remarkable for any thing,
ex"",>t its having been the ancient French and English
capital of the province. Yarmouth is an important com-
merciiil town, and owns much shipping. Pictou contests
the honor of being the second most important town in the
province, with Yarmouth. JVew Glasgow, en the East
River of Pictou, has grown up lately into a town oi" almost
the size of Pictou. Sydnetj and Arichat, in Cape Breton,
Windsor, in Hants, Lunenburg, in the county of the same
name, and Dartraoi th, opposite Halifax, are the remaining
GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC.
721
;s are quite nu-
towns of the Province. There are besides, however, quite
a number of villages and places near seaports, that are fast
growina: into the magnitude and importance of towns.
Among these may be named Baddeck, in Victoria ; Port
Hood and Maylon, in Inverness ; Antigonish^ in Sydney ;
Truro^ in Colchester ; Amherst and Piigwash, in Cumber-
land ; Canning, and Wolfville. and Kentmlle, in Kings ;
Lwerpool, in Queens; BAdgztown, in Annapolis; and
Dighy and Shelhurne, in the counties of the same name.
City of Halifax. — This city was founded by Lord Corn-
wallis in the latter end of June, 1749. It became the seat
of the provincial government early in the following year.
It has a noble harbor, which we have already described.
It is fortified by St. George's Island in the centre of the
harbor; by the Citadel, which is on the hill which rises
behind the city, to tlje height of two hundred and fifty feet
above the level of the sea ; also, by the fortification of York
Redoubt, and several masked batteries on both sides of the
harbor. The strength of the fortifications of Halifax take
rank next after those of Quebec.
The city extends about two miles and a quarter north
and south, on the slope of the hill, by the harbor. Its
width, at the most, does not exceed three-quarters of a
mile. Just one hundred and one years ago the town con-
tained one thousand houses, and about three thousand in-
habitants. At that time one-third of the population were
Irish, one-fourth German and Dutch, the remainder Eng-
lish, with a very small number of Scotch.
"There were one hundred houses licensed to sell ardent
spirits, and as many more houses that sold spirituous
liquors without license ; so that," to continue the words of
I)r. Styles, who records the fact, "the business of one-half
the town is to sell rum, and the other half to drink it."
About this time the city was divided into Halifax, Irish-
town, and Dutchtown — Halifax the centre, Irishtown the
south, and Dutchtown the north end. The population .'n
18G1 was 25,026. Some sections of thy city are now ex-
722
GKNEKAL CIVILIZATION, ETC.
ceedingly well built. In the centre of the city, particular,
ly on Granville street and Hallis street, wooden buildings
have been replaced by brick, granite, and freestone struc-
tures, which are not surpassed by any on this continent.
Of public buildings, the "Province Building" is the
chief. It is built of brown freestone, one hundred and
forty feet in length, seventy in width, and forty-two in
height. On its ground flat are apartments for the various
provincial oflices — provincial secretary's, financial secre-
tary's, receiver-general's, attorney-general's, customs, ex-
cise, and crDwn-land department offices. On the second are
the halls and committee-rooms of the two houses of Par-
liament, and a very spacious and beautiful apartment oc-
cupied by die provincial legislative libraiy. The Govern-
ment House, the Admiralty House, Dalhousie College, the
Asylum for the Insane, the Wellington Barracks, the Court
House, the Hospital, the Penitentiary, and the City Mar-
ket are tli(3 remaining principal public buildings. The
Queen's Dockyard, in the north of the city, is an impor-
tant public establishment. It was commenced in the year
1768. It is enclosed on the side toward the city by a high
stone wall. It contains workshops, warehouses, and stores
of various descriptions, besides very commodious buildings
for the residence of its officers and workmen.
The city is divided into six wards, and the corporation
consists of a mayor and eighteen aldermen. The Mayor's
Court is held on the second and fourth Tuesday of every
month. The police office is open on every week-day from
ten A. M. till three p. m. The fire department is under the
control of the city corporation ; and also the water supi)ly
of the city. The taxable property of tiie city, in 1861, was
$14,400,000.
Tliere are seventeen places of public worship in tlie city.
Three of these belong to the Episcopalians, four to the
Presbyterians, three to the Wesleyans, two to the Baptists,
two to the Roman Catholics, one to the Congregationalists,
one to the Universalists, and one to the Campbellites.
^t^lvyUL.
wHm
particular.
1 buildings
itoue stnic-
ontiuent.
ing" is the
indred and
orty-two in
tlie various
ncial secre-
ustoms, ex-
e second are
ises of Par-
)artinent oc-
riie Govern-
CoUege, the
ks, the Court
he City Mar-
Idings. The
is an impor-
}d in the year
•ity by a high
3es, and stores
ious buildings
•
e corporation
The Mayor's
isday of every
,veek-day from
it is under the
e water supi)ly
y, in 1801, was
hip in the city.
18, four to the
:o the Baptists,
grcgationalists,
;npbellite8.
■i;
m *
ok>'t:ral oivnjzATiox, ktc.
ly on
have
ck, gr,
h, .'■evcuty i:
%
im
!;i». . .
•u .o ^jcUU;
.1 fr.
pjwiucial offices— P'
tary's, receiver-get
cise, and crown-Ian
thfcjialls and c leipoou,
liamcnt, aijd a vorv spacii'
cupied by tlie pr '
..1 ;
X ..> .. ,... ..-, , ..close*! on the ??'•'■"• <,■>"•. '-.^ ''••
st<»np wall. It contains ToH
Hou3 descriptioiiK
lor the residence of
Tl" I.-i divideu inl
cousisu oi ii mayor a^d ei.
'^ sn.-f tj hold on the tiecoud
The j)oiice oftipn \:i ,
till tliree F. ]ki.
(utrol of the city corporatii.
-f the city. The taxable pn.
^14,400,000.
"' <"" are seventuuu {iLieub i-i puoiu: '
n)>so i'P^jMg to til' F"''- ■'■•
. •/ •■ to the ■\^'
(Pathol'
' ersaliatft, and ,mia to the i;*u)plu?llitti£.
Wl
ue
iiwilittfis.
Jl
N;
X
1 ,.
•W" "jw;i'''^"^-
-'si . 't
I]*
I^^^B^^H
^-i^H^H
IB
1
!!
!f
■!i«
GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC.
723
There are in the city four commercial banks, and one
savings bank, and a building society; the agencies of thir-
teen British and four American life insurance companies,
and of four British and sixteen American fire insurance
companies. There are four public libraries in the city,
two reading and news rooms, and benevolent societies of
various descriptions and nationalities. There are one gas
company, five gold-mining companies, and five other joint-
stock companies. There are one public museum and one
visiting dispensary.
Halifax is important both as a military post and naval
station. It is the military head-quarters of all the lower
provinces. It is the chief naval station for the whole of
British North America and the West Indies. Tiie admiral
of the North American station resides at Halifax during
the summer months, and in the winter at Bermuda. The
commerce of Halifax is considerable. The exports from
the port of Halifax, in the year 1860, were $3,902,638.
The imports for the' same year were $6,431,581.
Literature, &c. — Nova Scotia depends for literature, to
a very great extent, on Great Britain and the United States.
The quarterly reviews and monthly magazines of those
countries are very extensively read in the province. There
is no quarterly review published in the province, and the
only monthly periodicals at present published are two of
a religious character, under the direction of the Presbyte-
rians. Of newspapers, there are twenty-two published in
the pro 'i nee at present. In 1828 there were seven. Of
these seven, six were in Halifax, and one in Pictou. The
first paper started, out of Halifax, was the Pictou Colonial
Patriot. The oldest of our existing newspapers is the
Acadian Recorder. Of the twenty-two newspapers now
published, thirteen are in Halifax, and the remaining nine
are published in the following towns in the province : one
in Sydney, one in Atigonish (the Casket^ partly English
and partly Gaelic), two in Pictou, one in Liverpool, two in
Yarmouth, one in Digby, and one at Bridgetown. "We
46
|i|^'.-:=?^;^.'--Vfl^r^^
724
QENEEAl, CIVILIZATION, ETC.
have no daily newspaper. There are six of the Hahfax
papers that are published tri-weekly, on alternate days.
Some are morning and some are evening papers. Four of
the Halifax weeklies are in the interest of religious denomi-
nations. There is also a monthly sheet devoted to the
cause of total abstinence.
The principal publishing house in Halifax is that of A.
& W. Mackinley. The greater part of their pubhcations
are school-books.
Tb 3 principal literary productions of Nova Scotia are
those of Judge Haliburton (Sam Slick), John Young, Esq.,
Principal Dawson (now of McGill College, Montreal), Pro-
fessor Lyall, and the Rev. George Patterson. Ilaliburton's
History of Nova Scotia is a standard work of over seven
hundred and fifty pages octavo. It brings the history of
the province down only to the year 1828. The lighter
writings of the judge, under the nom de jphiiyie of Sam
Slick, are very popular, and widely known. The " Letters
of Agrieola," by John Young, Esq., have been already
referred to.
Dr. Dawson's works are chiefly on geology. His Acadian
Geology and Archia are widely and very favorably known,
both in Europe and America. His Remarks on Agricul-
ture and Husbandry are also very valuable. His attain-
ments in natural science are not second to those of any on
this continent, while his style, for simplicity, elegance, terse-
ness, and quiet power, is equalled only by very few living
naturalists.
" Intellect, Emotions, and the Moral Nature," has ranked
Professor Lyall already with the foremost thinkers and
writers of the present day.
"Memoirs of Dr. McGregor," by the Rev.
terson, is a work of much interest and well written. The
late Dr. MacCulloch was a writer of no ordinary power,
pnd has left behind him some theological works. The
Hon. Joseph Howe, the present premier of Nova Scotia,
is one of cur most beautiful and eflective writers. He has
George Pat-
mmmmifi
devoted to the
GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC.
725
produced some political brochures of great power — alvrays
written in a fascinating style. No poet of any mark has
yet made his appearance in Nova Scotia. There are nu-
merous versifiers among us, but hardly any that has arisen
to the dignity of a poet. The nearest approach to poetry
has been made by some of our female writers.
The following list of the governors of Nova Scotia is
from Haliburton's History, as far as it comes down, and
the remaining ones from personal knowledge :
AT ANNAPOLIS KOYAL.
1. Colonel Vetch, Governor October 22, 1710.
2. Francis Nicholson, Esq 1 714.
3. Eichard Philips, Esq 1719.
i. John Doucetj'Esq., Senior Councillor, administers government 1722.
5. Lawrence Armstrong, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1725.
6. John Adams, Esq., Senior Councillor Decembers, 1739.
7. Paul Mascarene, F^q., Lieutenant-Governor 1740.
AT HALIFAX.
Edward Cornwallis, Governor, July 14 1740
Peregrine Thomas Hopson, Governor, Aug. 3 1752
Charles Lawrence, Senior Councillor, Nov. 1 1753
do do Lieutenant-Governor, Oct. 21 1754
do do Governor, July 23 1756
Jonathan Belcher administers government, Oct. 9 1760
Mr. Ellis, late Governor of Georgia, is appointed Governor of
Nova Scotia, but never leaves England
Jonathan Belcher, Lieutenant-Governor, Nov. 21 1761
Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor, Sept. 26 1763
do do Governor, May 31 1764
Mr. Green, Senior Councillor, May 23 1768
Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, Aug. 26 1766
Right Hon. Lord Wm. Campbell, Governor, Nov. 27 1766
Benjamin Green, Senior Councillor, Oct. 30 1771
Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, June 30 1772
Lord Wm. Campbell resumes government, July 13 1772
Francis Legge, Governor, Oct. 8 1773
Mariot Arbuthnot, Lieut. Governor, April 27 1776
Richard Hughes, Lieutenant Governor, Aug. 17 1778
"Sir Andrew Suope Hammond, Lieut. Governor, July 31 1781
John Parr, Governor, Oct. 9 1782
Edward Fanning, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 23 1783
Richard Bulkley, Senior Councillor, Nov. 25 1791
John Wentworth, Lieut. Governor, May 14 1 792
Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 18 1808
|[! ?
726 GENERAL CIVILI^JATION, ETC.
Alexander Oroke, Senior Councillor, Dec. 17 1808
Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 11 1809
Alexander Croke, Senior Councillor, Aug. 26 1811
Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Oct. 16 1811
M«vj or- General Darrock, Commander-in-chief, Aug. 26 1814
Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 21 1814
Mjyor-General Geo. Tracy Smith, Commander-in-chief, Juno 27 1816
Lieut. General Right Hon. Geo. Earl of Dalhousie, Lieut. Gov-
ernor, Oct. 24 1816
Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, Sept. 13 1818
Lord Dalhousie, resumes May 1 1819
Sir James Kempt, Lieut. Governor, June 2 1820
Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, May 19 1824
Sir James Kempt, do do Aug. 22 1825
Michael Wallace, do do May 26 1825
Sir James Kempt, do do July 18 1828
Michael Wallace, do do Aug. 23 1828
Sir Peregrine Mailand do 1828
Sir Colin Campbell, Lieut. Governor 1834
Lord Falkland, Lieut. Governor 1840
Sir John Harvey, Lieut. Governor 1846
Colonel J. Bazalgette, Com 1852
Sir J. G. La Marchant 1852
Earl of Mulgrave *. 1858
During one hundred and fifty-five years, the province had forty-
nine administrators of its government.
SABLE ISLAND.
This little island is a dependency of Nova Scotia. It
is between 44 degrees and 43 degrees and 54 minutes north
latitude, and between 60 degrees 12 minutes and 59 degrees
40 minutes west longitude. It is about eighty-seven geo-
graphical miles from Cape Canseau, the nearest point in
Nova Scotia to it. It is over twenty-five miles in length,
and varies from one to two miles in breadth. It is merely
a sand-bank thrown up by the sea and wind. Its highest
hillocks are one hundred feet high. Coarse grass, cran-
berry and whortleberry bushes cover the greater part of
its surface. It is famous chiefly as the scene of numerous
shipwrecks, for its position is in the usual track of ships
sailing between Great Britain and Nova Scotia, and is sur-
rounded by shoals, which aro very dangerous to navigators.
A superintendent and a staff of men are now placed on
the island, and maintained at the joint expense of Nova
*(8^
GENERAX. CIVILIZATION, ETC.
T27
Scotia and Great Britain, for the express purjiose of afford-
ing assistance and protection to distressed seamen. Its
cost to Nova Scotia for the year 1860 was $3,85J:.44. The
island is visited statedly by a government vessel, for the
two-fold purpose of conveying necessary supplies to the
island, and bringing oft' those who have l)een thrown on
shore. The island is searched all round after every storm.
The commission takes possession of the wrecks and prop-
erty saved, and sells them for the benefit of the owner,
retaining a salvage for the benefit of the establishment.
There is not a tree on the whole i'^a* i. It has one lake —
Lake Wallace, eighteen miles long, and nearly a mile wide.
Between this lake and the sea there is a narrow ridge or
wall of sand, about two hundred yards in width. Some
years ago a breach was made in this wall on the north side,
by a violent storm, and an inlet was formed which con-
verted this lake into a very commodious harbor for small
coasters. A storm similar to that which opened it closed
it again, blockading two small American shallops, which
had taken shelter there. The house of the superintendent
is on the north side of the lake, opposite its centre. Eng-
hsli rabbits, and a species of ponies — "Sable Island po-
nies"— are the only wild animals running at large, and
subsisting on the products of the island. The rabbits are
very numerous, and good for food. The ponies are small,
but active and strong, and surprisingly hardy. Some hun-
dred years ago this was a favorite resort of fishermen, for
the purpose of killing morse and seal. They are now all
but exterminated, especially the former.
p' '»-/.
7*;
728
SITUATION, EXTKNT, ETC.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.
CHAPTER I.
SITUATION, EXTENT, GENERAL FEATURES, EARLY HIS-
TORY, &c.
Prince Edward Island is situated in that large recess
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence wliich washes the shores of
Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. It is be-
tween 45° 57' and 47 7' north latitude, and between 62° and
64° 26' west longitude. Its distance from New Brunswick
at the nearest point is nine miles ; from Nova Scotia, fifteen
miles ; from Cape Breton, thirty miles.
On the epst, north, and west, it is bounded by the Gulf
of Si. Lawrence, and on the south by the Northumberland
Strait.
ExTKNT. — Its extreme length is 130 miles ; its greatest
breadtli, thirty-four miles. Its area is 2,133 square miles,
or 1,365,400 acrtd.
General Features. — In form, the island somewhat re-
sem' !es a crescent, the concave side being toward the
gnl* In general appearance it is flat and gently undu-
1f There are no mountains, and the several ranges
o ills which lie across the country, nowhere rise to any
CO derable height.
he north-eastern and southern shores of the island are
much indented by bays, harbors, and inlets ; on the west
there is an almost unbroken shore, without bay or harbor.
The principal Jay* are Holland, Grenville, Harris, Cove-
head, Bedford, and St. Peter's, on the north; Egmont,
Bedeque, Hillsborough, Pownal, and Orwell, on the south ;
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC.
729
EARLY niS-
and Cardigan, Boughton, Howe, Rollo, and Colville on the
east.
The chief harbors are Charlottetown, Georgetown, Be-
deque, Cascanipeo, Porthill, New London, and Murray
'liarbors.
Tlie lakes are few and small. The ponds or lagosyis are
•numerous.
The principal rh'ers are the East, West, and North
Rivers, meeting in the harbor of Charlottetown ; the Ellis,
opening on Richmond J3ay ; the Morell, flowing into St.
Peter's Bay ; and the Cardigan, Brudnell, and Montague,
flowing into Cardigan Bay.
The principal capes are North Point, Kildare Cape,
Cape Tryon, Cape Turner, Eaet Point, Colville Point,
Terras Point, Cape Bear, Point Prim, Cape Traverse, In-
dian Point, Cape Egmont, and West Point.
In Richmond Bay there are two isla/nds^ Lennox and
Bunbury ; in Cardigan Bay are Panmure and Boughton ;
in Hillsborough Bay are St. Peter's and Governor s Islands.
Early History. — In all probability this island was
discovered in the year 1497, after the discovery of New-
foundland. Good authorities differ in opinion as to the
exact date of its discovery, no details of Cabot's first
voyage having been preserved. It was nearly two centu
ries after its discovery before any attempt was made to
colonize it. The Abenaki and Micmao Indians were its
original inhabitants.
It is mentioned, and accurately described, as to situa-
tion and extent, by Champlain, the founder of Quebec,
under the name St. John. It retained this name till the
year 1800. It was included by the French in that exten-
sive territory called New France. In 1663, it was granted
to Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, for fish-
ing purposes. It was not, however, till early in the eigh-
teenth century, that this island began to be the permanent
home of Europeans. A few families from Acadia, with
occasional settlers from Cape Breton, were its first settlers.
iH^li!ii£m
■ mrrths.^ ■'*'**'
•11
67»f k' ' IS', if
-•1,
-t
1^
J
^ I
730
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC.
In 1728, tlie European settlers were only sixty families.
These sixty families were chiefly Acadians, who had re-
moved from Nova Scotia after the Treaty of Utrecht.
In 1752, the whole population of the .'sland was esti-
mated at 1,35J:. The sections of the island at that time
most thickly settled, were the lands on both sides of Point
Prim, the lands about St. Peter's Bay, Savage Harbor,
Charlottetov n Harbor, and Hillsborough Bay.
The expulsion of the Acadians from No^a Scotia wa8
the means of more than doubling the population of the
island. When it became a British possession, in 1758, the
inhabitants numbered 4,100. By the treaty of Fontaine
bleau, in 1763, this island was finally ceded to Great
Britain. It was then placed under the government ot
Nova Scotia. In 1764, in common with the other British
American territories, the Britisli government ordered tlip
survey of the island. This survey was begun in the spring
of 1764, and completed in 1766. After the completion of
the survey, no doubt remained as to the superior quality
of the land of this island for agricultural purposes. Yari-
ous plans for its settlement were proposed. Lord Egniont
proposed that it should be settled on a feudal plan ; that
he himself should preside as lord paramount, and that
a number of baronies should be held from him, — v.ach
baron to erect a stronghold, and Avith their under-tenants
and men-at-arms to jjerform suit and service, after the cus-
tom of the ancient feudal tenures of Europe.* This plan
was rejected as impracticable. The plan adopted was far
from satisfactory in its results. It was to the following
etfect : — ^The island was divided into a given number of
townships, or lots — sixty-seven. These townships, or lots,
or parts of them, with certain reservations, were to be
granted to parties having claims upon the government,
upon certain conditions of settlement, and the payment
of quit-rents. Lot sixty-six, about 6,000 acres, Avas reserved
for the crovm. Lots forty and fifty-nine had already been
* Moutgoiuerj Murtio.
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC.
T31
promised to parties who had made improvements on them.
Sixt^'^-four townships, or lots, remained to be disposed of.
There were more applicants than lots. They vvere disposed
of by means of the ballot-box. "When an individual was
to receive a whole lot, his name alone appeared on the slip
of paper ; in other cases two, and sometimes three naines
were inscribed on one paper, as sharers in one lot. Upwards
of one hundred individuals participated in these grants."*
These grants were made in 1767.
A town-lot and royalty were reserved in each county ;
while each township was to furnish a glebe-lot of one
hundred acres for a minister of the Gospel, and a lot of
thirty acres for a school-master. The quit-rents were of
three rates, six shillings, four shillings, and two shillings,
annually, per hundred acres.
The grantees were to settle on each lot a settler for
every 200 acres, within ten years from the date of the
grant. The settlers were to be Protestants, from the parts
of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, or persons that
had resided in America for two years prior to the date of
the grant. Emigration from the mother country was then
discouraged, from the prevailing notion that it would de-
populate the country.
At the request of the majority of the grantees, the island
was separated from the province of Nova Scotia, and
obtained a separate government, 1770. Its first governor
as a separate colony was "Walter Patterson, Esq.
When ten years had elapsed, there was b;'t very little
done toward fulfilling the conditions on which the land
was granted to the several proprietors. No atteini)t had
been made to settle forty-eight of the sixty-seven lots, or
townships, into which the island was divided. The pro-
prietors of only ten lots had shown any conscicntioiis zeal
in fulfilling the conditions of their grants Sir James
Montgomery deserves to be named first among those who
* Sutherland. Geography UTid Natural and Civil History of the Inland;
an oxcellont work.
ifJ^^nSNW.&i*- 'tf'*-'
i, ! il
.1
^'f:1Hf;
•jmi
\
I
\
Am
'i' ; 'ill
'if ^''
V !!!> r
732
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC.
had done their duty in this matter. The grand object of
the majority of the proprietors was, how to make the
greatest gain with the least troubl'i and expense.
Tliis land question has been the standing grievance of the
island for the last ninety yeai*s.
In 1781, nine whole and five half townships were sold
for the payment of quit-rents. In 1797, it was found upon
investigation, under direction of the provincial parliament,
that twenty-three lots, embracing 458,580 acres, had not a
single family settled on them ; twelve other lots, containing
243,000 acres, had only thirty-six families ; six other lots,
containing 120,000 acres, had only forty-eight families.
The whole population at this time was estimated at 4,500.
The knowledge of these facts led to an agitation for the
escheat of the lands of those proprietors who made no
effort to fulfil the conditions of their grants.
In tUe year 1798, a bill passed the provincial legislature,
changing the name of the island from St. John to PkinijK
EnwARD. Inconvenience had arisen from the island hav-
ing the same name with the capitals of two neighboring
provinces. The people of the island were anxious to mark
their gratitude to Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the
father of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, for kindness ex-
tended to them; they therefore resolved to call their
country by his name, the change to take effect from the
cijmmencement of 1800. At this period the population
of the island was not over 5,000.
At the beginning of the present century the arrears of
quit-runt amounted to .£59,102 sterling. A very liberal
arrangement was made by the government for the pay-
ment of tiieso arrears. The lots were divided into ,/jm
dai^Hcs. The first, thopc which had the full number of
settlers, were to pay only four years' quit-rent, for the
amount of arrears from 1709 to 1801. The second class,
those having only half the required number of settlors,
were to pay five years' quit-rent. The third class, those
having less than a half and more than a fourth of the re
mtm
SITUATION, KXTENT, ETC.
733
quired population, were to pay nine years' quit-rent*. Tlie
fourth class, those which had less than a fourth of the
required number of settlers, were to pay twelve years'
rent. The fifth class embraced those lots or townships
that were wholly unsettled ; fifteen years' quit-rent was
required in their case in lieu of all arrears. This was less
than half the amount owed by this class. This arrange-
ment had a very beneficial eii'ect on the prosperity of tiie
island. Rapid progress in population and social comfort
followed. •
There were some proprietors who did not avail them-
selves of this commutation ; it became necessary, therefore,
to proceed against them for the recovery of the quit-rents
due from them. In 1804, judgments were obtained against
ten townships, five half-townships, and one-third of a
township. It seems, however, that the nonpaying proprie-
tors had sufiicient influence with the home government to
prevent the act under which their lands were seized from
receiving the royal assent. Under the administration of
Governor Smith, lots 15 and 55 were escheated. He was
prevented from further progress with that work by ordei-a
from the king.
TIi6 old conditions for settling the island having been
cancelled, as far as they required the immigrants to oe
Protestants from the parts of Europe not belonging to
Great Britain, and the quit-rents having been made light-
er, a very healthy impetus was given to the prosperity of
the island.
In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk settled about 800 High
landers on his lands, who soon, by dint of industry, became
comfortable and prosperous farmers. In subsequent years
immigrants continued to arrive from Scotland, Ireland,
and England ; so that in the year 1832, the population in-
creased to 32,292. From that time onwards, the history
of this little colony has been that of true progress, in a.^
that tends to make a country truly great.
ii
4 «-c'---
m
NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETO.
CHAPTER II.
NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, tuc.
.■-Ml
This island differs from the neighboring provinces, in
respect of natural resources, in having no mines or min-
erals. Its chief natural resources may be comprised under
these three : the forest, the soil, the sea.
The Forest. — ^The whole island was at one time covered
with a magnificent growth of /orest trees; birch, beech,
maple, clni, ash, pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, cedar,
willow, and poplar, are the chief varieties. There are
hardly any barrens in this island ; even where destructive
fires, or the constant encroachments of lumbermen, de-
stroyed the original forest, a new growth of trees spring
up with wonderful rapidity, and become fit for fuel or
fence-poles. At one time a very extensive lumber trade
was carried on in several districts of the island. Ship-
building is still carried on to a considerable extent.
TiiK Soil. — There is no portion of the lower provinces
where agriculture can be prosecuted with better prospects
of a good return than in this island. The soil is sti'ong
and rich to an uncommonly uniform degree. Even the
swamps, with which we meet occasionally, are hardly an
exception to this statement, for when drained and limed,
they make good hay land. The peat bogs, which, accord-
ing to Dr. Gesner, are of excellent quality, will one day
aft'ord good fuel. They afford also good material for com-
posted manure. The most extensive of these is on the
south side of Cascampee harbor. Such is the excellence
of the soil, that good crops are produced immediately on
its being redeemed from the forest, and for a long time the
yield is good, though it remain entirely unmanured, it' any
attention is given to the rotation of crops. The soil seems
equally adapted t> the growth of wheat, oats, and potatoes.
The facilities for making manure are very great. The
MHM
NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETC.
735
bogs, to which reference lias been already made, supply-
one source. The rivers — rather, arms of the sea — creeks,
and inlets, which almost everywhere indent the land, have
deposited vast stores of sea-manure, which, when spread
over the exhausted soil, has the most beneficial effect in
fertilizing it. The quadrupeds and birds of this island
are, with few exceptions, of the same kind with those of
i^ova Scotia and New Brunswick.
The Sea. — It is enough to say of the waters of Prince
Edward Island, that they are not one whit behind those
of Nova Scotia m the abundance and excellence of their
fish. The rivers abound with excellent trout, eels, floun-
ders, mackerel, oysters, lobsters, and salmon ; and the
coast with cod and herring. The oysters of this island
are very superior, and l.>.rge quantities of them are export-
ed annually. The halibit- and sturgeons that are caught
on the coast, are usually very large. In former times the
walrus was wont to frequent the shores in large numbers,
and was a source of considerable profit. The harbor seals
and harp seals float on the ice toward the north shore in
large numbers. Wild geese, wild pigeons, wild ducks, and
brant are also very plentiful in their seasons.
Climate. — This island, being situated in the centre of
the temperate zone, has a climate that is neither extremely
cold nor hot. The variations from the coldest day in winter
to the hottest day in summer are however very considerable.
On rare occasions, under a keen northwest wind the mercury
will be found falling as low as 23 degrees below zero ; and
on a calm day in July or August, it will rise as high as 90
degrees in the shade. In some sections of Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick it rises higher in summer and fulls lower
in winter than it ever does in this island. The moan tem-
perature of the year is 40 degrees. The number of days of
falling weather in a year ranges from 120 to 140 days.
The climate of this island is conducive to health and longev-
ity in a high degree. The atmosphere is pure, and re-
markably free from fogs. The water is good and very
111 1(1
[i \
'ifmff^^'ymit^
r=
•i :
W
iim
736
INDUSTEIAL RESOURCES.
abundant. Many of the prevailing fevers and diseases of
the North Ainericf i continent are almost unknown in this
island. Healthy and vigorous old age is rather the rule
than the exception here.
CHAPTEE III.
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES.
Agricultural. — Agriculture overshadows every othei
department of industry in this island. "When in the posses-
sion of the French, large quantities of grain were supplied
from this island to their fortresses at Louisburg and Quebec.
They called it even then the granary of North America.
Individual farmers were then wont to export 1,'200 bushels
of grain annually. The soil and the climate are equally
favorable to the pursuit of agriculture. Wheat, oats, barley,
and : ye, of excellent quality, and at a highly remunerative
rate per acre, are raised. The potatoes of Prince Edward
Island are famous for their excellence, not only in the
British provinces but also in the United States ; beans and
peas, and all sorts of esculents and culinary vegetables,
grow to perfection, and yield large returns. Apples, plums,
cherries, currants, &c., grow well, and with due attention
yield ample returns. Excellent si^echnens of live-stock
are to be met with in every section of the island. Some
of the hardiest and swiftest horses in the lower provinces
are raised in Prince Edward Island. The following figures
will indicate the progress made in this department of in-
dustry during the last three-quarters of a century.
In 1825 there were raised on this island 766 bushels of
wheat ; 10,717 bush, oats, and 47,220 bush, potatoes. In
184:1 there was raised of wheat, 160,028 bush. ; of barley,
83,299 ; of oats, 611,824: ; of potatoes, 2,250. 114 bush. Num-
ber of horses, 9,861 ; of neat cattle, 41,915 ; sheep, 73,050 ;
hogs, 35,521. In 1860 (as shown by the census of 1861)
INDUSTRIAL EK80URCE8.
737
there was raised of wheat, 346,125 bush.; of barley, 223,195 ;
oats, 2,218,578; buckwheat, 50,127; potatoes, 2,972,335 ;
turnips; 3-18,781:; hay, 31,100 tons ; horses, 18,705; neat
cattle, 60,015 ; sheep, 107,242 ; hogs, 71,535.
In 1841 there were 141,560 acres of land under cultiva-
tion. In 1848 there were 215,389 acres cultivated. The
number has largely increased since that date.
The Fishing industry of this island is not what it might
have been, if the skill, energy, and enterprise of the inhabit-
ants had been a little more directed into that channel. There
is however a decided progress, as shown by recent statistics.
The late census (1861) gives as the product of the fisheries
during the preceding year: herrings and gaspereaux, 22,416
barrels; mackerel, 7,163 bari'els; codfish, 39,776 quintals ;
fish oil, 17,608 gallons. There were 89 fishing establish-
ments, 1,239 boats, and 2,318 persons employed in the
fishery.
Ship-Building is not carried on to the same extent that it
was some years ago ; still, a good many vessels are built an-
nually, in proportion to the population. In 1846, 82 v <sels
were built, whose tonnage was 12,012; estimated value,
$330,000. In 1847, 96 vessels were built, tonnage, 18,445 ;
value, $553,350. In 1860, QQ vessels were built, value,
$309,225.
The Manufacturing industry of the island is not very
extensive. The statistical returns of 1861 give the follow-
ing items under the head of manufactories : grist-mills, 141;
carding mills, 46 ; saw-mills, 176 ; fulling and dressing mills,
9; tanneries, 55 ; lime-kilns, 48; biick-kilns, 9. In 1848
there were 13 breweries and distilleries. In 1860 there were
122,940 yards of cloth fulled ; and 303,676 yards of cloth
manufactured, not fulled ; 143,803 lbs. of leather manutac-
tured ; 1,331,000 bricks manufactured; 711,485 lbs. of
butter, and 109,233 lbs. of cheese.
Commercial. — The commerce of Prince Edward Island
is mairdy with the British provinces, the United fStates of
America, and Great Britain.
jWi
u
:|t f: .
738
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
The total value of tlie imports of Prince Edward Island
for 184:7, was $718,270 ; total value of exports for the same
year, $356,130. Of the imports, $286,065 were from Great
Britain ; $395,505 from the British provinces, and $35,325
from foreign countries. Of the exports. Great Britain re-
ceived $160,98 ; tlie British provinces, $190,315 ; West
Indies, $1,21:5 ; foreign countries, $-1,105. In 1850, the
whole value of imports to the island was $630,475 ; of
exports, $325,990. The value of the exports for 1860 was
$1,015,970, exclusive of sixty-six new vessels which were
built that year. The trade of the island with the United
States has largely increased of late years. The value of
exports from Prince Edward Island to that country during
1860, was $390,028 ; being almost as much as the exports
to all the lower provinces together.
CHAPTER ly.
POPULATION, EDUCATION, CIVIL INSTITUTIONS, 4o.
PoruLATioN. — In 1752, the whole population of the
island was but 1354 souls. In 1758, when it became a
British possession, the inhabitants numbered only 4:,100.
In 1822, the population had increased to 21,600; in
1833, it was 32,292; in 1841, it was 47,031; in 1851,
55,000 ; and by the census of 1861, it was 80,856.
The vast majority of the inhabitants are natives of the
island. Of those from abroad, the largest number are
Scotchmen, next Irish, then English ; after that, British
colonists. The number from foreign countries is but very
small.
Religious Denominations. — The Roman Catuoltcs are
the most numerous of all the religious bodies on this
island. The number of the adherents of this faith is,
H5,797. They have one bishop and twelve clergymen.
Edward Island
jrts for the same
were from Great
ies, and $35,325
irreat Britain re-
^190,315 ; West
In 1850, the
as $030,475 ; of
rts for 18(50 was
sels which were
with the United
The vahie of
,t country daring
ch as the exports
TirriONS, &o.
opnlation of the
hen it became a
)ered only -1,100.
id to 21,000 ; in
17,031; in 1851,
,s -80,850.
ire natives of the
[rest number are
'ter that, British
ntries is but very
AN Catholics are
[3 bodies on this
of this faith is,
Ive clergymen.
■il;:
■'''•*'?1!W<r'"'"-«^r.
i' I.
H
i
knA^M'
-
! p^ M '^^'- '
• . ill i ii. ,-.'
1 ^-
riptt?^- ■ ;
^
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
739
The PRE8BYTi<;rtiA.^8, numerically, take rank next. They
number 25,925. They have fifteen clergymen.
The Episcopalians come next in point of numbers, be-
ing 6,78.^f. They have one arch-deacon and nine clergymen.
The Wesleyans number 5,80i. They have seven cler-
gymen and one supernumerary. Tlie Baptists number
3,402, and have seven clergymen. The Bible Ciibistian8
number 2,061, and have five clergymen. There are forty-
one Universalists, and about 300 who name themselves on
no denomir^ation.
Education. — The first effort toward the promotion of
public education was made by opening the National School,
in Charlottetown, about the year 1821.
Tlie Board of Education was appointed in 1830. It
consisted of five members, three of whom formed a quo
rum for the transaction of business. The Centra) Academy^
at Charlottetown, was opened in January, 1836. The tii"st
principal of this institution was the B.ev. Charles Loyd. In
1837, a further impulse was given to the cause of a sound
and thorough education, by the appointment, for the firet
time, of a visitor of schools for the whole island. John
McNiel, Esq., was appointed to this office. The number
of schools at that period, was fifty -one ; scholars, 1,649.
In 1847, when Mr. McNiel resigned this important work,
the schools had increased to 120, and the pupils to 5,000.
In 1851, the number of schools was 135 ; of scholar,
5,360. In 1856, the number of schools was 260 ; of
scholars, 11,000. Towards the close of the same year, a
Normal School, for the training of teachers, was opened.
It is the law of Prince Edward Island, that the Bible be
read in all the public schools. This law was passed in
1860, after much agitation on the subject.
The census of 1861 gives 302 public school-houses, and
280 public teachers.
The number of churches is 156.
Civil Government. — ^This island, like the neighboring
provinces, is a British colony. Like all the North Ameri-
47
flr^'^yt
740
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
can colonies, it enjoys the fullest freedom to make and
administer whatever laws are best suited to its peculiar
circumstances, without any interference by the parent
state.
The Legislature consists of the Governor, who is ap-
pointed by the Queen, a Legislative Council, and a House
of Representatives.
The House of Assembly, or Representatives, consists of
thirty members, and the Legislative Council of twelve
members. Both these bodies are elected bv the people.
The island is divided for civil purposes into three coun-
ties— King's, Queen's, and Prince's; each of these elects
ten representatives and four councillors.
The Executive Council consists of the Governor and
nine members, chosen out of the members of the Legis-
lative Council an(i House of Assembly.
The Judicial Department embraces the following
courts : 1. The Gommissioners' Courts^ for small debts.
These have jurisdiction in settling debts that do not ex-
ceed sixty dollars. Each county has six or seven of
these courts. They consist of three commissioners, ap-
pointed by government. They meet monthly, and are de-
signed to prevent expensive litigation. 2. The Court of
Probate^ which disposes of wills, and grants letters of ad-
ministration for the disposal of the property of such as die
intestate. 3. The Supreme Court, which is the highest tri-
bunal of civil law. It meets four times in the year in Queen's
county, and twice a year in the two other counties. It is
presided over by a Chief-Justice and one Assistant Judge.
4. The Court of Chancery, of which the Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor is chancellor, and the master of the rolls the acting
judge. This court adjudicates in cases which cannot be
satisfactorily determined by statute law. It aims at de-
ciding according to the equity of the case. 5. The Cotvrt
of Vice- Admiralty, which is similar in function to the
court of the same name in the other provinces. 6. The
Court of Marriage and Divorce. The Lieutenant-Gover-
J
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
741
nor is the president of this court, and the Executive-Coun-
cil are the members of it. It exists, as yet, but in name.
The Firnt Home of Assembly of Prince Edward Island
met in July, 1773. It consisted of eighteen members. Tho
Legislative and Executive Councils were then one body,
appointed by the sovereign.
The island was connected with Nova Scotia, in respect
of civil government, till the year 1770. In that year it
was erected into a separate province. Its first governor,
as a separate province, was :
"Walter Patterson, Esq., whose term was from
Lieut. General Edmund Panning,
Colonel Joseph F. W. Debarres,
Charles Douglas Smith, Esq.,
Colonel John Ready,
Sir Aretes W. Young,
7. Sir John Harvey,
8. Sir Charles Augustus Fitzroy,
9. Sir Henry Vere Huntly,
10. Sir Donald Campbell,
11. Sir Alexander Bannorman,
12. Sir Dominic Daly
17T0to
1786 '<
1808 "
1813 "
1824 "
1831 "
1836 "
1837 "
1841 "
1847 "
1851 "
1864 "
1786
1805
1813
1824
1831
1835
1837
1841
1847
1850
1854
1859
Mil
George Dundas, Esq., became governor in 1859, and con-
tinues still. He is one of the most deservedly popular
governors the island ever had.
The PiMio Deht of tho island on the 31st of January,
1861, was $155,324. To meet this debt, there are 4,190
acres of crown lands, and 73,821 acres of public lands, as
well as $66,278 due in instalments for sales of public lands,
and bearing interest at five per cent.
Revenue and Expenditure. — For 1859, the revenue
amounted to £41,106 3«. 11<^., Prince Edward Island cur-
rency. The expenditure for that year was £44,707 13«. \\d.
For 1860, the revenue was £43,113 13*. hd. The expen-
diture for that year, was £61,794 12*. ^d. The excess of
expenditure over revenue during these years, is to be ac-
counted for by the expensive purchase of the large estates
of the Earl of Selkirk, for the public good.
The city of Chablottetown is the capital of the island.
t''
i '0
-i^n
ii'^
4
742
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
It is built on gently rising ground, looking toward the
south. It is on the north of the East river, and near its junc-
tion with the North and West rivers. The streets cross
each other at right angles. The six main streets are one
hundred feet wide, and run north and south. . The other
nine streets, crossing the former at right angles, vary in
width from sixty to thirty feet. The colonial building is
a beautiful and commodious edifice, built of Nova Scotia
freestone. The corner-stone of this building was laid on
the 16th day of May, 1843, by Sir Henry Vere Huntly,
the lieutenant-governor. This building cost about $72,500.
In 1848, the population of Charlottetown was 4,000 ; in
1855, 6,513 ; in 1861, 6,706.
The only town in King's county is Georgetown. It is
about thirty miles from the capital, and contains a popu-
lation of about 800.
The only town in Prince's county is Summerside. It
lies on the north side of Bedeque harbor. Its distance from
the capital is forty miles. It is only thirty-five miles from
the tow n of Shediac, New Brunswick. It is a town of re-
cent growth, but it is rapidly increasing, and its trade is
considerable.
There are nc railways in Prince Edward Island, but its
highways are excellent in summer and winter ; in the fall
and spring they are usually very deep and miry. There is
no country of the same size in British North America
where there is bo mnch good turnpike road. It has
telegraphic communication with the continent of America
by means of a submarine (iable, eleven miles in length,
connecting it with New Brunswick. There is also tele-
jjjraphic communication between Charlottetown and some
of tlie principal places in the island.
The standing grievance of Prince Edward Island has
been the Land Question. The royal commissioners, who
sat jii this subject in 1861, among other things, recom-
mend the purchase of the estates of large non-resident pro-
prietors by the government, at an equitable rate, to be sold
ill
POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
. 743
again in retail to the tenants. If the government decline,
or is not in circ istances to make the purchase, hen the
award of .'he commissioners is, that the sale of the land to
the occupant tenants be compulsory on the pact of the
landlords, on the receipt of a just and reasonable price.
They also fixed twenty years' rttit as the highest sum that
could be demanded by any proprietor. The award further
determines, that all arrears of rerit due previous to first of
May, 185S, are now cancelled. Their report is very able
and vilaboraie, and has had a beneficial efi'ei u already. It
may be further noticed, that their award does not compel
proprietors of less than 1,500 acres to sell tl'oir lands to
tb3Be who may be occupying them as tenants.
,i
■ I
t <
Hi
">t'illV^!Mmm^w,!l^, .<;■'■'
m'\
NEWFOUNDLAOT).
CHAPTER I.
SITUATION, DISCOVERT, AND EARLY HISTORY.
Situation and Extent. — Jfewfoundland is an island in
th. form of an irrep;ular triangle, situate on the east side
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and lying between the paral-
lels of 46° 40' and 51° 39' north latitude, and the meridians
of 52° 44' and 59° 31' west longitude. On the eastern
shore it is bounded by the Atlantic ; on the north and
northeast by the Strait of Bellisle — fifty miles long by
twelve wide ; on the northwest by the Gulf of St. Law-
rence ; on the south and southwest by the Atlantic. Ita
extreme length, from Cape Race to Grignet Bay, is 420
miles; extreme breadth, from Cape Ray to Cape Bonavis<^a,
300 miles. Its circuit is estimated at 1,000 miles; its area,
38,000 square miles. It is nearer to Europe than any part
of the American continent ; the distance from St. John's,
in Newfoundland, to Yalenti, in the west of Ireland, being
1,656 miles.
Discovery, Settlement, &c. — ^It is said that in the year
1001, A. D., Biorn, a sea-king of Iceland, took possession
of this island, and settled near Harbor Grace. Both. Rob-
ertson and Pinkerton are of opinion that its colonization
was at least attempted by the Norwegians, in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, tfohn Cabot, the Venetian, under a
commission for discovery from Henry YII. of England,
on the 24th of June, 1497, observed a headland of this
island, and taking it for a lucky omen, called it Bonavista,
which is its name till the presen;, day. The island was
then inhabited xyj a savage race of Indians, with whom it
mmm
aiiriiT -
li. ^
SITUATION, DISCOVERY, &C.
745
•was very difficult to establish any amicable relations.
They suffered greatly, in consequence, at the hands of the
many adventurers who resorted thither. It is supposed
that the last remnant of them emigrated to Labrador. It
is some years since one of them has been seen on the island.
A colony of Micmacs from Nova Scotia helped to drive
them off. They have left many traces of their labors and
energy behind them : one of these is a fence, which exter.ds
over thirty miles. Its object was to be of help to them in
catching deer. It was built from water to water, with one
gap, close to which the hunters posted themselves, and
watched for their prey.
The earliest attempt at colonizing this island by the
English, was in 1536. " Master John Hore," a London
merchant, " with divers other gentlemen," sailed thither
in that year, but were reduced to great extremities, and
were compelled to return to England in the winter, and
would have perished had they not met with a French ship
laden with provisions, which they seized and brought with
them to England.
In 1578, another fruitless attempt was made to settle a
colony there, by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the half-brother
of Sir Walter Raleigh. The island having now become a
common resort for fishermen and traders of all nations,
even pirates having made it a place of rendezvous witli
impunity, Sir Humphrey Gilbct again, in 1583, embarked
with 200 people, in several ships, landed at Bay St.
John's, and took possession of it in the name of Queen
Elizabeth of England, in the presence of the crews of
thirty-six fishing vessels of various nations. Sir Ilum-
plu-ey Gilbert was lost on his way home to Eni_'-^nd the
succeeding winter, his little ship, the Little Squirrel, hov-
ing foundered in a terrific gale near the Azores. Of nil
the armament that went out with him, the Golden IIIikcI
alone reached England, and she in the most dilapidated
condition. Sir Bernard Diake made a further attempt a
few years later, but without much success. The next
ii'
j'i '■'
746
SITUATION, niSCOVEUY, &C.
attempt was made in 1610, under a patent granted by
Jaipes I., to Lord Bacon and others, who established the
first permanent colony on the Island at Conception Bay.
In 1617, a Welsh settlement was established on the south
part of the island, called Cambriol (now Little Britain),
under the .direction of Captain Whitbourne. In 1623,
Sir George Calvert — who afterward, as Lord Baltimore,
settled Maryland — formed an important and prosperous
settlomert ^u Forryland, where he remained about twenty
years. A few years later, Lord Falkland (Cary) sent a
small colony of Irishmen there. Aboui the year 1646
there were sixteen settlements planted on various parts of
the coast. Sir David Kirk brought a number of settlers
to the inland in 1054. There werti 350 British families
there about this date. Tlie French liad a colony of some
strength at Plac^ntia. For the next eighty years the
colony suffered greatly for the want of regular govern-
ment, which was mainly caused by the selfish cruelty and
mistaken policy of the " Lords of Trades and Planta-
tions," who iinagiiied th^'t a w^dl regelated o;overnment
would be injurious to their interests there. They even
moved the Lritif'h government, through tiieir misrepresen-
tations and influi.nce, to 8"nd Sir Joh.i Berry out with
orders for the doportaticn of the settlers, the destruction
of their houses, and the wholesale demolition of a colony
wliich had been planted and reared at a heavy cost of
blood and treasure to the nation. Sir ;Tohn Berry was a
mun of humane character, and while with his left hand
he reluctantly and tardily can led out his orders, with his
ri(/ht hand he pleaded successfully for the colonists.
In 1696 all the Englisli settlements of Newfoundhnd>
except Bonav'sta and Carbonear, were seized by the Frcr ch,
who always set a high value on this island on account of
its fisheries. It was the scene of much conflict betv^een
Great Britain and Francp, for many subsequent years.
The Treaties of Utrecht, 1715 ; of Paris, 1763 ; of Ver-
mmma
TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, &0.
Y47
sallies, 1783 ; and of Paris, 1814 and 1815, all recognize
this island as a British possession.
It was in the year 1729 that Captain Osborne was ap-
pointed the first civil governor of this colony. He was
empowered to appoint justices of the peace. Courts of
justice were appointed in 1789. A f(»w years later a
chief-justice was appohited, and surrogate courts in vari-
ous parts of the island. John Reaves, Esq., was the first
chief-justice of this colony. In 1824: the island was divided
into tiiree districte, in each of which a court was annually
to be held.
CHAPTER II.
TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, COiilMATE, <fec.
Newfoundland is in shape almost an equilateral trian-
gle, the apex being to the northward, terminating in Cape
Bauld, while the base extends east and west between Cape
Ray and Cape Race. The coast-line is very irregular,
being indented at intervals of only a few miles with bays,
harbors, coves, creeks, and rivers. The shores are rocky,
and the headlands, on the south-west side, quite lofty.
Bays. — The most important bays are : on the east side
of the triangle, Ilaro, "White, Notre-Dame, Bay of Exploits,
Bonavista, Trinity, and Conception Bays ; on the south
nd*e, St. Mary's, Placentia, and Fortune Bays ; on the
west, St. (reorge's and the Bay of Islands ; and at the
nortliern apex. Pistol et Bay. Most of theseare extensive,
Slid coi tran commodious and well-sheltered harbors. The
good harbors are numerous, and have good anchorages with
clear good channels.
Rivers. — Piveis are numerous in the island, and though
the great majority are small, yet some attain to respectable
|M-'!
I 's
, ti
748
TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL BES0UBCE8, &C.
size. The largest are the Humber, River of Exploits,
Gombo, and Great Cod Hoy Rivers. Nearly all the rivers
of this island issue from lakes or ponds in the interior.
Many of them abound with excellent salmon.
Lakes and Ponds. — Fresh-water lakes and ponds are
very numerous. They are found over the face of the
entire country — on the very tops of the hills. • Tlie surface
covered with water has been estimated at one-third of the
whole island. The Grand Pond is about sixty miles long,
and five miles wide. Indian Lake is thirty miles long by
six wide. Sixty-seven ponds have been counted from one
spot on the top of the N. E, Mountains of Avalon, some
two and three miles in extent, none less than 100 yards,
an^d not at a farther distance than tea miles from the base
of the hill. Some of the larger and more important lakes
have water communication with each other.
Victoria Lake has communication with Bathurst, Wil-
mot, and George the Fourth lakes.
Mountains and Hills. — There is a long and continuous
mountain extending from the three sugar-loaf hills near
Cape Roy, to the north-east. These elevations have a
steep face toward the north-west, and are rather flat and
regular on the summit. The " Blow-me-down Hills," on
the south side of tlie Humber River, have the least ele-
vated peak at 800 feet. " Butter Pots," near Conception,
at either end are 1,000 feet. A ridge that runs from Cape
Dog to St. Mary's Bay, at the highest elevation ranges
from 1,200 to 1,500 feet. The elevations about St. Jolin's,
viz. : Signal Hill, South Side Hill, and Bronxscombe Hill,
are respectively 520, TOO, and 870 feet above the level of
the sea. The hills near the mouth of the River of Ex-
ploits are from 1,000 to 1,500 feet high. There is more
good soil on this island than was supposed some years
since. The "Barrens," properly so called, are the tops of
hills, and most elevated plains. These are covered with
thin scrubby vegetation — berry-bearing plants and dwarf
bushes of various kinds.
*■ %V
TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, ETC.
749
Trees. — ^The principal trees are, sprtee, birch, larch,
willow, mountain ash, and lir-trees. Trees do not attain
to a large size. Recumbent and standing evergreens are
to be met in great variety ; berry-growing bushes abound
in every swamp. European and American grasses, also
red and white clover, are abundant.
Animals. — The only animal peculiar to this island is
the Newfoundland dog, which is famous the world over.
A team in the out-districts of Newfoundland consists of
a man and two dogs. A team of this description carries
two men with a considerable amount of stuff on a slecjoce
or sleigh. All their fire-wood is hauled by teams of tins des-
cription in some districts. The long-haired pure Newfound-
land dog is not very easily procured now. There Ib, how-
ever, a short-haired native breed, a cross with tho other,
which is abundant, and possesses the chief excellences of
the first named. The deer, the wolf, the bear, the beaver,
martin, and wild-cat, are to be enumerated among the
wild animals of the country. Land and aquatic birds are
numerous.
Fisn. — The Ifikes, and ponds, and rivers abound with
trout, and salmon, and eels of great size. The lobsters
are uncommonly large and of good quality. The mussels
are more esteemed than European ones. Tho capelin,
mackerel, herring, and salmon are abundant. Tiie hali-
but, thornback, and other kinds of fish, are to be found
on the coast. The cod^ however, io the " fish" of New-
foundland, while all other varieties, as being less import-
ant, are called by their specific names. There is no place
in the world comparable to the shores and " banks" of
Newfoundland for cod-fisheries.
Agricultural Capabilities. — In several sections of the
Island itgriculture can be carried on with profit. The
timber, natural grass, and clover, found in various districts^
indicate a productive soil. In the neighborhood of many
of the lakes and rivers there are valuable alluvia. The
Blunted forests ou the east and south shores mark a poor
«l!
,(PW^
■ -'■ >''■
B3, ^
:!
llii'l^
.A>-
750
TOrOGKAPUY, NATURAL EESOUKCES, ETC.
country ; but the large growth of timber in the interior
and toward the west indicates a rich soil, and proves that
there is room for successful agricultural enterprise in New-
foundland. The land close by thp sea-shore aifords no
criterion by which to estimate the fertility of the inland
districts.
Potatoes yield well and are of excellent quality. Green
crops thrive well in many districts. Wheat has been
known to yield fifty bushels per acre. Apples, plums, and
cherries have been raised wath success. Red, black, and
white currants ; gooseberries, strawberries, and raspberries
of very good quality are grown. The season for the growth
and ripening of the fruits of the earth is brief, but fervent.
Climate. — ^The climate, though severe, is not unhealthy.
The rate of mortality, according to the population, is lower
than in any other country in America. Old age is usually
attended here with an uncommon degree of bodily vigor
and mental activity.
In 1829, Marten Galen, of Placentia Bay, was over one
hundred years of age, lived in excellent health, and in
company with his brother, caught that year nine quintals
of fish. Seventy years previous to that date he piloied
Captain Cook into Placentia Bay. Mrs. Tait died in the
same place 135 years old. About twenty-five years since
a woman died at Torbay, near St. John's, aged 125 years ;
shortly before her death she sent for a doctor to see what
was the matter with her poor child, who was sick. The
child was ninety years of age ! The winter lasts from the
beginning of December till the middle of April, and some-
times till the end of that month. Frost is less intense
here than in Canada. January and February are the
coldest months. The bitterest winds are from the north-
west. The south-east wind is warm; the north-easterly
winds are cold, both in summer and winter. The follow-
ing table contains the results of meteorological observa-
tions for the years 1858, 1859, 1860, taken by E. M. I.
Delaney, Esq., C. E.
-— ■^
INDUSTRIAL EE80UKCE8.
751
ro.
the interior
proves that
irise ill New-
3 affords no
f the inland
ility. Green
jat has been
5, plums, and
d, black, and
id raspberries
3r the growth
t', but fervent,
ot unhealthy,
ition, is lower
age is usually
bodily vi gor
was over one
lealth, and in
nine quintals
Lte he piloted
dt died in the
ve years since
^ed 125 years ;
)r to see what
vas sick. The
lasts from the
pril, and some-
is less intense
)ruary are the
rom the north-
north-easterly
. The follow-
ogical observa-
en by E. M. I.
1858.
M»?- height of harometer, oorrected to b«» level
Min. do. do,
Mean do. da
Max. height thermometer
Min. do. do
Moan temperature for year
(inantlty <>f rain, incliidtng melted snow
Prevalli'n!; winds
Rain fell on 98 days ; fog prevailed 66 days.
1859.
Max. height of barometer, corroctod to sea level
Min. do. do.
Mean do. do.
Max. height of thermometer
Min. do. do
Mean temperature for year
Quantity of rain. Including melted snow
Prevailing winds
Kuin fell on 110 days; snow on 54; fog, 88; thnnder
and lightning on 6.
1860.
Max. height of barometer, corrected to cea level
Min. do. do.
Mean do. do.
Max. height of thermometer.
Min. do. do
Mean temperature for year
Quantity of rain and melted snow
Prevailing winds
liain fell on 117 days: snow on 48; fog, 109; thunder
and lightniu; on 5.
80.88 Inches...
28.70 " . . ,
29.61 " . . .
84"
2"
41"
50.860 Inches..
N. W
Sn.56 Inches
28. T2 " ....
29.79 « ....
96-
8"
44"
64.220' inches! '. '.
NNW. & 88 W,
80.86 Inches.. ..
29.,'i6 " ....
29.60 " ....
80-
lU"
41"
82.040 inches...
NW. &8SW..
January 16.
March 26.
Auu'URt 12.
February 11,
the year.
January 26.
Doccnibor 5.
Jnly 13.
March 8.
the year.
February 29.
February 11.
Aug. 11 & 15.
February 8.
the year.
Grand Banks. — ^These are the most famous submarine
elevation on the face of the globe. In the whole of their
extent they occupy six degrees of longitude, and nearly
ten degrees of latitude, being over 600 miles in length,
and 200 miles in breadth, with soundings varying from
twenty-five to 150 fathoms. The mean depth is estimated
at forty fathoms. They swarm with cod and other I'iads of
fish.
CHAPTER III.
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES.
Agriculture. — ^This important branch of industry was
for centuries not only systematically discours^ged, but actu-
ally prohibited by law in Newfoundland. The fii*st im-
portant relaxation of the old system regarding the land was
¥■ ■'
mhi
\i\
752
INDUSTRIAL BE80UBCE8.
made by Governor Sir Richard Keats, in 1815. He was
authorized to make small grants of land, limited from two
to four acres. In 1825 a further advance was made ; un-
der the government of Sir Thomas Cochrane grants of
from 250 to 500 acres were made to enterprising settlers ;
roads were made at the public expense, and agriculture
encouraged.
From the returns for 1836, we give the following items :
24,117 acres of land in possession.
ll,062i " in cultivation; estimated value, $606,250
1,559 horses
5,832 neat cattle
6,923 sheep .
4,000 goats .
3,155 hogs
77,950
145,800
44,615
20,000
23,660
$918,275
The returns for the same year give 1,168,127 bushels of
potatoes, 10,310 bushels of grain, and 6,975 tons of hay.
The returns for 1845 give the following figures, which
show a healthy progress :
83,435^ acres of land in possession.
29,656^ " under cultivation, valued at $2,990,625
2,409 horses .
8,135 neat cattle
5,750 sheep .
5,791 goats .
'^,077 hogs .
120,450
203,375
23,750
28,955
39,075
$3,406,230
The same returns give 853,352^ bushels of potatoes;
11,695 bushels of grain ; 11,013 tons of hay and fodder.
In 1857, the latest Census taken, the whole improved
land of the Island, including dyke or marsh land, intervale,
and upland, was 49,61 6 1 acres. Tons of hay cut, 16,250J ;
bushels of oats raised, 9,438 ; bushels of wheat and barley,
l,932f ; bushels of potatoes raised, 571,480; but^ els of
turnips, 12,832 ; bushels of othor roots, 3,502 ; bushels of
clover and timothy seed, 731 J Number of neat cattle,
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES.
753
12,962; milch cows, 6,924; horses, 3,509; sheep, 10,737;
Bwiue and goats, 17,551. Butter made, 134,908 pounds ;
cheese, 158 pounds.
Mills and Factories. — ^There were in the Island, in
1857, fourteen-saw mills, valued at $28,500, and employ-
ing fifty-four men ; and three grist-mills, valued at $5,000.
worked by three men. There was one iron foundry, em-
ploying seven men ; three breweries, employing thirteen
hands. The oil factories and cod-liver oil manufactories
are numerous ; but the returns of them are incomplete.
In one electoral division aloile there are eight cod-liver oil
manufiictories, and one common oil factory. *The shoes
and boots manufactured the year preceding the census, are
valued at $43,455 ; chairs and cabinet wares, $120 ; car-
riages-, $490 ; otlier wooden wares, $31,220 ; lime manu-
factured, 16,500 bushels, valued at $6,000.
Snip-BuiLDiNG. — ^This department of industry has never
been prosecuted to a very large extent in this colony. The
native timber does not furnish materials for ships of the
first class. The returns for 1857, give eighty-eight vessels
as the number built, the tonnage of which was 2,427, which
shows that they were vessels of very moderate size. ISTum-
ber of boats built during the same year was 630 ; number
of vessels owned in the island was 212 — tonnage, 6,229.
Fishing Industry. — This is by far the most important
department of industry in Newfoundland. The cod and
seal fisheries rank first in importance.
The fishing season opens in May, when herring are
caught chiefly for bait. The cod fishing begins in the
month of June, and continues till the end of September,
and sometimes till the middle of October. It is carried
on in large boats on the great banks, and in boats and
shallops near the shore. The first is termed the bank fish-
ery, the other the shore fishery. The bank fisheries are
prosecuted chiefly by the, French and Amrricans, while
the British direct their chief energies to aore fisherie?.
The cod is caught on hooks baited with rring, mackerel,
SMAGE EVALUATION
TEST lARGET (MT-3)
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Photographic
Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, NY. 14580
(7)6) 872-4503
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754:
INDUSTKIAL RESOURCES,
capelin, clams, &c. They are very voracious, and bite
with great rapidity. One man often catches 250 good
fish in a day. They are carried on shore for caring, with
as little delay as possible. When landed, the fish is thrown
on. a stage, and by a division of labor between four per-
sons— respectively termed cut-throat, header, splitter, and
Salter — they are rid of heads, opened, cleaned, and piled in
salt to cure, at the rate of several hundreds per hour.
When completely cured, the codfish are asserted into four
difierent kinds, known as merchantable, Madeira, West
India, and dun or broken fish. The first is prime fish ;
the second is nearly as good ; the third is intended for the
negroes; the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is used
at home. The tongues and bladders are cut ofi* from the
refuse by the old msn, women, and children, and pickled
in kegs. The livers are exposed to the sun in vats, until
the oil drains oif ; the oil is then barrelled ; it is afterward
boiled to extract the inferior quality. These several pro-
ducts of this branch of industry are commonly sold by the
fishermen to the wholesale merchants for goods or money.
During the winter months many of the fishermen are en-
gaged in hunting for game, or trapping for fur. Others
are occupied in making boats, oars, staves, hoops, &c.
In 1849, there were exported from Newfoundland
1,175,167 quintals of dried fish, valued at $2,825,895 ; in
1857, 1,335,649 quintals of fish were cured, the value of
which would be over three millions of dollars.
Next in importance to the cod, is the seal fishery. Tiie
season for this fisliing commences in March. During win-
ter, vessels of from eighty to one hundred and fifty tons are
fitted out, and, manned with crews of from fifteen to forty
men, set out for the seal regions early in Marcli. The men
generally pay for their own provisions, and receive their wa-
ges in such a proportion of the seal-skins caught, as may be
agreed upon between themselves and the owners of the
vessel. They have usually to cut a channel for themselves
out of their harbor ; then they push their way to the fields
=^
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES.
755
of ice and bergs that float down from the Aictic ocean,
and are often exposed to terrible dangers. The seals arc
found in groups on the ice, sunning themselves, or asleep.
These places are called " seal meadowsP When a " seal
meadow" is reached, the men, armed with spiked clubs,
beset them on every side, and with a knock on tlie head
dispatch them with great rapidity. If not instantly killed,
they utter the most piteous moans, like the cry of children.
They are skinned at once and on the spot; and the skins,
pelts, and scalps, with the inner coat of blubber on them,
are then carried into the vessel, and strewed upon the
deck until they have become sufficiently dry to be stowed
below.
As many as 800, and sometimes 1,000, liave been taken
by a vessel in one day. The seals are o^foiir hinds : the
bay seal, found on the coast ; the hooded seal, which lias a
hood that it can draw over its head; the square flipper;
and the harp seal, the last named being the most valuable.
In 18'15 there went out, from the port of St. John alone,
to the seal flsliery, 126 vessels, of 11,863 tons, and manned
by 3,895 men. they took 302,363 seals. In 1852, the seal
fishery of the Island employed 367 vessels, of 35,760 tons,
manned by 13,000 men, and took 550,000 seals. During
the same year, 7,333 tons, 220 gallons of seal oil, valued
at $1,188,500 ; 387 tons, 237 gallons of blubber and dregs ;
and 534,378 seal-skins, were exported, the whole being
valued at $2,085,100.
The census of 1857 ffives thenumber of vessels enn-aE'ed
in the seal fishery at 802, tonnage 57,898J, men on board,
14,412. Number of seals taken, 428,143.
Herrings are plentiful, but until recently have not en-
tered much into the fishing industry of the colony. In
1857 there were 157,354 barrels of herring cured.
The same remark applies to the salmon fishing. It has
secured more attention of late years. In 1857, 2,940
tierces of salmon were cured, besides 913 fresh salmon that
were disposed of in St. John's. The following is the nnm-
48
n
r,,
mffff-m-f^^l^^
M i:
11
l! I '
¥4
1
756 POPULATION, ETC.
ber of boats that were engaged in the shore fishery in
1857 ; large boats, from four to fifteen quintals, 10,497 ;
large boats, from fifteen to thirty quintals, 797; large
boats, from thirty quintals and upward, 1,244, — total,
12,538.
Commerce. — Fish is the great staple of trade and com-
merce in Newfoundland.
The following statement of the imports and exports of
the Island for a series of years, will indicate at once the
amount of its commerce, and its stationary character. In
1829 the imports of the colony were valued at $4,096,995 ;
the exports at $3,451,545.
Imports. Er.ports,
1845 $4,00G,650 $4,697,190
1846 4,011,435 3,795,515
1847 4,217,045 4,032,825
1848 3,848.140 4,187,905
1849 3,700,912 4,207,521
1850 4,163,116 4,683,676
1851 4,609,291 4,276,876
1852 3,857,468 4,:}06,376
1856 6,356,830 6,693,985
1857 7,067,160 8,255,855
1858 5,864,310 6,594,180
1859 6,620,680 6,785,565
For 1860, the imports were valued at $6,270,640 ; the
exports at $6,358,560. During the last 260 years, this
Island has furnished fish and oil to the value of very nearly
$650,000,000.
CHAPTER IV-
POPULATION, CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, kc
Population. — In 1785, the population of the Island was
estimated at 10,244; in 1806, it was 26,505; in 1825,
45,759 J in 1830, 73,705 ; in 1845, 96,295 ; in 1851, it was
-^-^-M.
POPULATIO^i, ETC.
757
rade and com-
STITUTIONS, 4c.
101,600 ; and by the census of 1857, it was 122,638. The
last census shows that 107,399 of the population were bom
in Newfoundland; 3,516 born in England ; 7,383 in Ire-
land ; 390 in Scotland ; 475 in the British colonies ; and
the balance in foreign countries.
In 1857, the religious census is stated as follows : —
Church of England, 44,285 ; Eornan Catholics, 56,895 ;
Wesleyans, 20,229 ; Kirk of Scotland, 302 ; Free Kirk,
536 ; Congregationalists, 347 ; Baptists and other denom-
inations, 44.
The places of worship are : Church of England, 75 ;
Church of Rome, 63 ; "Wesleyans, 37 ; Kirk of Scotland,
1 ; Free Kirk, 2 ; Congregationalist, 1.
Under the head of trades and professions, we have the
following statement! — Clergymen, or ministers, 77 ; doc-
tors and lawyers, 71; farmers. 1,697; mechanics, 1,973;
merchants and traders, 694 ; persons engaged in catching
and curing fish, 39,805 ; able-bodied seamen and fisher-
men, 20,887 ; persons engaged in lumbering, 334.
Buildings. — ^Tlie number of inhabited houses in the
Island in 1857 was 18,364. These were inhabited by 20,187
families. Tlie number of uninhabited houses was 903 ;
of houses then in process of building, 1,026 ; of storet-
barns, and out-houses, 9,940 ; of fishing-rooms in actual
use, 6,006.
Schools. — Denominational schools prevail more in
Newfoundland than in any of the lower provinces. De-
nominational conflicts of a fierce and pernicious descrip-
tion prevail there also. There are Episcopalian schoolc,
Poman Catholic schools, and Protestant dissenters' schools.
In 1836, there were but 79 schools in the colony. In
1845, there were 209 schools, with an attendance of 10,266
pupils. In 1857, there 280 schools, and the number of
pupils in attendance was 14,136. The sum voted by the
legislature for education, in 1859, was $55,968. There is
a General Protestant Board of Education and a Roman
Catholic Board. There are three academies in St. John's ;
,^r-.--f'f*f^-'^»'?^|i_
'Tfi
758
POPULATION, ETC.
one under tlie direction of the Chiircli of Eni»;land, Church
of Rome, and the Wesleyan Churcli, respectively. There
is a high school in connection with St. Andrew's Preshyte-
rian Church. Tiiere is a grammar scKool of a superior
character in Harbor Grace. Tliere are ten commercial
schools of a superior character.
Legi8la.tive. — ^The first legislature of Newfoundland
met in the year 1832. The elective franchise was confer-
red, in 1832, on the whole male population over twenty-
one years of age, and occupying dwelling-houses, either as
owners, or tenants for one year. The legislature consists
of the governor in council and two houses of Parlianieut ;
the upper house, called the Legislauve Council ; the lower,
the House of Assembly. The executive council consists at
present of five members ; the legislative council of twelve,
and the house of assembly of thirty members.
Judicial. — There is the Supreme Court, with a chief-
justice and two assistant judges. The spring term of the
court begins on the 20th of May ; the autumn term on
the 20th of November. There is a central circuit court,
the spring term of which opens in April, and the autumn
term in October. There is a court of vice-admiralty, of
which the chief justice for the time being is judge. There
are also courts of the justices of tlie peace,
BoAKD OF Works. — This board has the manaacement and
superintendence of the public buildings and public works
of the colony. Government House, the Colonial Buildings,
Court Houses, Customs Houses, Hospital, Lunatic Asylum,
and all other public buildings belonging to the Island are
under its control. It has also the supervision of all light-
houses, buoys, beacons, roads, highways, bridges, &c., &c.
The various local boards act under the direction of the
central board.
Post Office Department. — There is a postmaster-gen-
eral in St. John's. There are sixteen post masters and
mistresses, and fourteen way-office keepers, in the various
other districts of the Island.
^'^ ^
POPULATION, ETC.
759
with a chief-
Tlie only route on which there is a daily mail is between
St. John's and Portugal Cove. On two or three routes
there is a tri-weekly mail, by wagon. About four more
routes are run weekly, by boat or messenger; the remainder
are run fortnightly in summer and monthly during winter.
Eleotkic Teleouaphs. — ^I'here are five hundred and fifty
miles of over-land telegraph in Newfoundland. The sub-
marine line from Aspy Bay, Cape Breton, to Cape Ray,
Newfoundland, is seventy-eight miles. This submarine
line was laid in 1856. There are fifteen stations and twenty-
two employes. The tariff from St. John's to Port Hood,
C. B., is three dollars for ten words, and for each additional
word, twelve cents. The local tariff is twenty-five cents
for ten words. The great Atlantic electric cable was laid
on the 5th of August, 1858. Its termini were Yalentia Bay,
Ireland, and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland.
Banks, &c. — The Savings Bank is governed by three
members of the Legislative Council, and five members of
the House of Assembly. The bank is operted every Mon-
day for depositors' business, and on every Wednesday for
discount business. Three per cent, is allowed on all sums
not less than $4. No sum exceeding $1:00 is received, ex-
cept on condition that it shall not be withdrawn without
two months' notice. As audited the 31st December, 1860,
the assets and liabilities were as follows : —
Assets . . . . ; $930,G33
Liabilities .^ 839,711
Surplus and assets $90,892
The Union Bank and Commercial Bank are both in a
prosperous condition, and are found sufficient for the accom-
modation of the community in this department.
There are fire, life, and marine insurance companies, and
agencies for British and foreign ones. There are also
benevolent, charitable, and religious voluntary associa-
tions.
ii vs!
760
POPULATION, KTC.
St. John's City, — ^Tliis is the capital of the Island. It is
built mainly of wooden houses. It is built at the mouth
of one of the best of harbors, with highlands sheltering it
on either side. It is entered from the sea through a narrow
passage only about six hundred feet wide, between two
lofty cliffs, which are strongly fortified. The city is lighted
by gas, and supplied with water from a pond on one of the
adjoining hills. One irregular street of about one mile in
length comprises the chief buildings of the city. The Colo-
nial Building is built of granite ; the Government House is
a handsome building, which cost nearly $1,000,000. The
new Roman Catholic Cathedral is also a handsome edifice.
The Miquelkts. — These are three little islands on the
south coast, at the mouth of Fortune Bay, being the only
remaining possessions of the French in these regions.
They are called Miquelon^ Little Miquelon (or Langley),
and St. Pierre. The Miquelets are connected by a sandy
beach, which is sometimes passable by foot travellers, and
at other times c'ut througii by storms. The French main-
tain a small military force there, and it is the head-quar-
ters of their Newfoundland fisheries. Of late years it has
been assuming the dignity aud importance of a naval
station.
^•'^Hl^Jv.
Island. It 13
vt the mouth
sheltering it
ngli a narrow
between two
ity is lighted
on one of the
it one mile in
ty. TheColo-
nent House is
)00,000. The
dsome edifice.
slands on the
)eing the only
these regions.
(or Langley),
ed b}'' a sandy
travellers, and
French niaiu-
;he head-quar-
ite years it has
ice of a naval
I N D E I.
Abokioimeb of New Brnnawlck, 6til-626.
Acadia College in Nova Scotia, 708.
" Acadia" iron mine of Nova Scotia, 864.
Acadia, New Brunswick first settled under
the name of, 542.
Acton copper mines, 825-828.
Addinstoii colonization road, 306.
Aericultural Association of Upper Canada,
nistory of; 44-48 ; tables of the exhibitions
of, 46-4T.
Agricultural capabilities of New Bruns-
wick, 564.
Agricultural productions of Canada, 62-64;
of Lower Canada, 35, 86; of Upper Can-
ada, 61, 62; of New JJrunswick, 560, 62T-
668; of Nova Scotiii, 687; of Prince Kd-
ward Island, 736; of Newfoundland, 762.
Agricultural productiveness, comparative, of
Nova Scotia, 635.
Agricultural products exported from Can-
ada, 291.
Agricultural School at St. Anne, in Lower
Canada, 89.
Agricultural societies in Lower Canada,
87-89.
Agricultural societies ' " Upper Canada,
89-50.
Agriculture in Canada, history of, 82-64; en-
couragement of, by government, 42.
Agriculture in New Brunswick, 627-653.
Agriculture in Newfoundland, 749, 751-753.
Agriculture in Nova Scotia, 6S4-6S8.
Agriculture in Prince Kdward Island JTSfB.
Ague and fever unknown In New Bruns-
wick, 566.
" Albert"' coal of New Brunswick, remark-
able properties of, 861.
Albert county. New Brunswick, description
of, 636.
Albertite, where found In New Brunswick,
691.
Albion coal mines of Nova Scotia, 350.
Alewlfe fishery on the St John Itiver, 680;
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 5S8.
Alluvial soils of Nova Sootio, 671.
Alluvium, two kinds of In New Bruns-
wick, 689.
American clergy In Canada, restrictions
on, 876.
American common school system, remarks
of Mr. DuDCombe on, 896.
American railroad contractors In Cftnadt,
extensive operations of, 222-224.
Anecdotes of an American railroad con-
tractor. 222-224.
Anticosti, island of, immense peat bog in, 346.
Anticosti, ship route from, to Superior
City, 19.
Apatite, importance of, as manure, 338;
where found in Canada, 889 ; value of per
ton in England, 889.
Architects of the Government buildings at
Ottawa, 98.
Area of Upper and Lower Canada, 1^; of
New Brunswick, 552 ; of Nova Scotia,
660; of Prince Edward Island, 72>; of
Newfoundland, 744 ; of the Labrador pen-
insula, 81; of the Ottawa volley, 96; of the
great basin ot Lake Winnipeg, 76; of the
timber territories of Canada, 67 ; of 8<'d-
imcntary and crystalline rocks in C'aii-.idu,
28; of Lake Superior, 14 ; of Lake Huron,
14 ; of Lake St. Clair, 16 ; of Lake On-
tario, 16.
Arichat Academy In Nova Scotia, 707.
Ascott copper mine, nenr Sherbrooke, 326.
Ash, two species of, in New Brunswick, 570.
Atlantic and Pacific, importance of a prac-
ticable route between, through British
territory, 872.
Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, soils of, 608.
Authors, distinguished, of Nova Scotia,
724.
Banks, Grand, of Newfoundland, 751.
Banks In Newfoundlard, 769.
Banks In Nova Scotia, 704.
Baptist Church in Ciinada, Literary Insti-
tute of, at Woodstock, 489 ; theological
text-books adopted by, 442.
Baptist Church in Nova Scotia, 718.
Baptist Seminary at Kredericton, 611.
Bark f«noe. how constructed, 131-133.
Bark jf theblreh-trec. numerous uses of, 138.
Barley, production of. In t.'anada, 69.
" Baron of llenfrew," the great timber ship,
286.
Barytca, sulphate of, where found in Can-
ada, 384.
Basswood-tree in New Brunswick, 672.
Batiscan, Eadnur forges at, 819.
■ '^'T.'l'- ■"'W^. '
762
INDEX.
Battoan, description and history of the,
laa, 184.
Bay of C'liftkMir cod, superiority of the, B81.
Buy of Cliulcur, di'scriptinn of, 002.
Bay of Fundy, si-a ashciics in. 674-680;
fok'S on, 5r)U.
Boys of Nova Sootlii fifil , Prince Edward
Island, 7'2S; of Newfoundland, 747.
Bcauhurnois canal, lenirth and course of, 167.
BeaviT-sklns, eariy tax on, 275.
Beavi,', the, the present symbol of Canada,
275.
Beech, two Boeciet of. In New Bronswick,
568.
Belleville Seminary near PIctoii, 4S3.
Jiiehruniute of potash, how mouitfactured in
Norway, 382.
Bircli-biirk canoe, how constructed, 181-138.
Birch, four species of, in New Brunswick,
563.
Birch-tree and bark, volue of the, 188.
Birds of Nova Scotia. 675.
Bishop's College, Lennoxville, history of,
620 ; faculty of arts in, 621 ; faculty of
divinity In, 522.
Blind In Nova Scotia, 683.
liourd of Works in Newfoundland, 768.
Boards of Agriculture in Upper Canada, 43.
Bobcivygeon colonization road, 805.
Bog Iron ores of Canada, 819.
JJo^ soils of Nova Scotia, 673.
Bois bruUs, or lialf breeds, Canadian, 87.
Books, value of, imported into Canada in
1«50-6I, 476.
Botanicjil Society of Conada, 51, 472.
Boundaries of Canada, 13.
Boundary of New Brunswick b?ttled by
treat v, 1S42, 551.
Breadth of beam of vessels admitted by the
St, Lawrence ond Welland canals, 182.
Bri<lge over the St. Lawrence, plans, for, 205.
Bridges in Canada, cost of construction of,
127.
Bridge, the Victoria, origin of, 257; de-
scription of, 258-268; cost of, 263.
Bridle and winter roads in Canada, 116-119.
British Columbia and Vancouver Island,
mineral resources of, 365-871.
British Columbia, inlluence o^ on the set-
tlement of the Saskatchewan, 78, 80; com-
munications with, 79.
British government, eariy policy of, in re-
gard to education in Canada, 876.
Brothers of St. Joseph, 687.
Bruce copper mines, 822, 823.
Bulfalo, Brantford and Goderlch Railway,
history of, 234-236.
Buildings In Newfoundland, 767.
Buller, Arthur, remarks of, on education In
Lower Canada In 1888 (»o<e), 601.
Burlington Bay, railway from, to London,
Bush, list of articles necessary for a settler
going Into the, 304.
Butternut tree in New Brunswick, 569.
Calkchk, description of the. 111.
Campbell, Mr. John, gold found by, near
Halifax, 367.
Camping in the Canadian wooda in winter,
81.
Canada, physical features of. 18-81 ; geo-
graphltal surface of, 20 ; soils of, 22; cli-
mate of, 27 ; agricultural history of, 82-
64; forest Industry of, 64-74; Northwest
Territory of, 74-80 ; agricultural produc-
tions of 62-64 ; travel and transportation
in, 99-263 ; roads in, 102-12S; water com-
niunieations of, 129-185; history of rail-
ways in. 190-256; action of, iu favor of an
inter-c» 'onial railway, 241; electric tel-
egraph in, 266 ; trade and commerce ot
268-807; present trade of, 292-296; Im-
migration Into, 801-8(t3 ; mineral resources
of, 308-350 ; historical sketch of education
in, 378-64).
Canada Gold Mining Co., operations of, 380.
Cana<ia Presbyterian Cl'.irch, college of, at
'I'oronto, 438 ; text-books adopted by, 442.
Canadian age of Iron and brass, 221.
Canadian guarantee law of 1849, unguarded,
2iO.
Canadian Institute at Ottawa. 471.
C.'Uiadian Institute at Toronto, 471.
Canadian Literary Institute at Woodstock,
434.
Canadian railway gauge, 253-265; advantage
of, in case of invasion, 255.
Canadian railway statistics, 193-196.
Canadian securities in England, 200.
Canadians, not "morally responsible" for
the failure of the Grand Trunk Kailway,
205, 211.
Cunadiur tariffs, 800.
Cana<Iian trade, total tonnage engaged In, in
18CS-61, 296.
Canals in Canada, 149-156, 163-185; table
showing dimensions and coat of, 177; re-
marks on the system of, 181.
Canals In conueccion with the St. Lawrence,
16, 19, 20.
Canals In Nova Scotia, 697.
Canoe, bark, description of the, 181-133.
Capes cf Prince Edward Island, 729.
Capital of the Hudson's Bay Company in
r»6, 281.
Carboniferous districts of Nova Scotia, solU
of, 670.
Cariboo district on Frazer River, 867.
C.irioles, description of and mode of travel-
ling in, 90.
Car!-ton, county. New Brunswick, descrip-
tion of, 649.
Cirleton, Sir Guy, governor of New Bruns-
wick in 1785, 541.
Cartier, Jacques, the St. Lawrence dlscov-
cred by, 288.
Catalogue of useful minerals found in Can
ada, 813-815.
Catholic college of Reglopolis opened at
Kingston in 1346, 895.
Cattle, climate of New Brunswick favorable
to the rearing of, 500.
Cedar, the white. In New Brunswick. 571.
Census, religious, of Nova Scotia, 680.
Chair of agriculture In Upper Canada, 61.
Chambly canal, when projected, 160.
ChamblV Industrial College, 525.
Channels of Canadian trade, 298.
Characteristics and cost of Canadian canals,
177.
Charlotte county, New Brunswick, deacrip'
tlon of. 640.
of. 18-81; geo<
Hoils of, an; cU-
1 history of, 82-
1-T4; Northwest
lultiiral produc-
(I triinsportation
I'is; water corn-
history of rail-
of, ill favor of an
>Al ; electric tel-
nd coiniiierco o^
of, 2U2-296; im-
miiieral resources
etch uf education
jporations of, 380.
irch, college of, at
s ailoptcd by, 442.
' niss, 221.
1649, unguarded,
wa, 471.
)iito, 471.
ite at Woodstock,
53-255; advantage
55.
8, 193-106.
gland, 200.
responsible" for
Trunk Kailway,
age engaged in, In
56, 15S-185; table
id cost of, 177; re-
r, 181.
I the St. Lawrence,
17.
of the, 181-133.
Island, 729.
Bay Company In
' Nova Scotia, sella
r River, 307.
nd mode of travd-
runswlck, descrlp-
lor of Now Bruns-
Lawrence dlscor.
srols found in Can
[opolis opened at
runswick favorable
' Brunswick. 671.
a Scotia, 680.
pper Canada, 51.
)jccted, 150.
•ge, 525.
de, 298.
af Canadian canals,
irunswjck, descrlp*
INDBX.
763
"Charlotte," the first river steamer in Upper
Canada, 141.
Chorlottutown, P. K. I., description of, 786.
Chaudlery Kalis, 95.
Chauveau, Dr., appoinced superintendent
uf education In Lower Canada in 1865,
606 ; important services of, 506, 607.
Chlorite, where found in New Brunswick,
695.
Christian Brothers' Schools In Canada, 686.
Chromic Iron, where found in Canada, 871.
Church uf Knghuid parochial schools in
Ujiper ('anada, 429.
Church of Kuglond Schools of theology in
Canada, 485; text-books used in, 441.
Church of Uome, schools of theology of, in
Upper Canada, 437; text-books used in
the theological schools of, 441.
Church of Scotland, university of, at King-
ston, 4^38 ; theological text-books of, 441.
Churches in New Brunswick, 618; in Nova
Scotia, 712,718; in Prince Edward Island,
788 : in Newfoundland, 757.
Civil List, revenue, and expenditure of New
Brunswick, 617.
CUissiciil and Industrial College of Bte.
Amio de la Pocati6ro, 526; uf Ste. Marie
de Mannoir, 527.
Classical Cullcge and Theological Seminary
of Montreal, 523; of Nloolet, 524: of St.
Hyacinthe, 624 ; ofSto. Th^r^e deBlain-
ville, 525.
Classical College of Three Rivera, 680.
Classical schools In Canada in 1785 and 1789,
876.
Clay, plastic, where found in New Bruns-
wick, 594.
Clearing wild land in New Brnnswick, 621.
Clergy, American, in Canada, restricMons
on, 876.
Clergymen, number of. In "New.Brunswlck,
618.
Climate of Canada, 27-31 ; of New Bruns-
wick, 656; of Nova Scotia. 66:J-66<); uf
Prince Edward Island, 786; of Newfound-
land, 750.
Cloth manufactured in Upper Canada, 63.
Cloudy days at Toronto, tub's of, 80.
Coal, not found in Canada, 309; extensive
fields of, in Nova Scotia, 851) ; amount of,
exixirtod at Pictou in 1858 ;. Important
mines ot^ at Cape Breton, 861; amount
raised in Nova Scotia In 1851; in New
Brunswick, 352, 360, 368 : in Newfound-
laud, 360; found in British Columbia and
Vancouver Island, 869; mining for, at
Naniamo, 870; amount exported from
Naniaino, 871.
Coah bituminous, where found in New
Brunswick, 590.
Coal measures of New Brunswick, 860, 888.
Cobalt, traces of, found In Canada, 829.
Cod fisherv in the Bay of Fundy, 575 ; on
the Oulf of St. Lawrence, 580 ; of New-
foundland, 158.
Coins, value of, in Now Brunswick, 618.
Colborne, Sir John, endowment obtained by,
for Upper Canada College, 892.
College preparatory schools in Canada, 483.
Colleges in Lower Canada, 508-640.
Colleges in Upper Canada, 481-467 ; theologi-
cal text-borks adopted in, 441-448.
Colleges In Nova Scotia, TOT.
Colonization roads In Canada, 61, 805.
Colored separate schools In Canada, 428.
Columbia, British, gold discoveries in, 266-
867.
Coiiunerce and navigation in New Bruns-
wick, 606-609.
Commerce and trade of Canada, 268-807; of
Nova Scotia, 690 ; of Prince Edward Is-
land, 787; of Newfoundland, 766.
Common School Act of Upper Canada, the
flrst approorlations under, 884.
Common Schools in Canada, from 1816 to
1822, 884; in New Brunswick, 61*-0I7;
in Nova Scotia, 706; in Upper Canada,
grants for, 419 ; Increase in the number oj^
420.
Common school system of America, re-
marks of Dr. Duncomhe on, 896.
Common school system of Upper Canada,
distinctive features of, 409 ; permanency
of, 411 ; support of, not compulsory on tha
municipalities, 412 ; text-books, maps, &c.,
used in, 418-415; religious character of^
416.
Communications of Canada, bv wate , tso-
183.
" Company of rianada." 270.
"Company of One Hundred Partners," 269.
Conference at Teronto, in relation to an inter-
colonial railway, 289,
Congregational Church in Nova Scotia, 718.
Congregational Colleco of British North
America, 440 ; text-oook used in, 448.
ConstUution of Novo Scotia, 716.
Continentid Church and bchool Society, 686.
Convents in Upper anada, 480, 435.
Contractors, Ainef oan railroad, extensive
operations of, 222-224.
Contractors of the Grand Trunk Co., gov-
ernment controlled by, 210.
Contracts of the Grand Trunk Co., defective
provisions of, 209.
Contracts, railroad, item, and per mile, com-
pared. 232.
Gop|>er Bay mine, 823.
Copper, gray sulphuret of, found in New
Brunswick, 692.
Copper mines of Ijiko Iluron, produce ot,
823 ; at Acton, 825-828 ; Ascot, 826.
Copper mining In thcMalie region, 321-323 ,
in Canada East, 824-827.
Copper on Lake Superior, found in 1687, 271.
Copper ores found in great abundance in
Canada, 821 ; discoveries of, in New Bruns-
wick, 362; in Newfoundland, 8W; in
Vancouver Island, 367.
Copper nyrltes, deposits of. In New Brans-
Corduroy j-oads in Canada, 119.
Corn Indian, production of, in Canada, 60.
Cornwall canal, history of the, 107.
Corporate names of railways in Canada,
193-196.
Cost of public works connected with inland
navigation In Canada, 179, 180.
Cost of railways in Canada, 196.
Coteau locks, tolls taken at, in 181&-'24,148
Cottoges, French Canadian, on the St. Law
rence', 3u,
Oounties. description of New Brunswick bjr,
627-653.
764
INDEX.
Counties In Nova Scotin, afrricultaral rank of,
688; rank of, In flihini^ Industry, 660.
County grammar schools in Upper Canada,
432.
Coureura du Boia, Canadian, mode ot life
of, 87.
Course of study In the faculty of arts in
Canadian universities, 468.
Course of the seasons in New Brnnswick,
66T.
Courts of Now Brunswick. 610: of Not*
Scotlii, 717 ; of Prince Kdward Island, 740 ;
of Newfdunduind, 758.
Criminals, juvenile, schools for. In Upper
Canada, 468; reformatory school for, at
Isle aux Nulx, 538.
Cronyn, Dr., Uishop of Huron, theological
college, proposed by, 487.
Crooks, Mr. Wm., remarks of, on the state
of education in Cuna<la in 181S, 887.
Crops in New Bruuswick, average produce
oi; 660.
Crosby iron mine, on the Rideau Canal, 316.
Crown lands of Novo Scotia, 702.
Crown lands surveyed and for sale in Can-
ada, sm.
Crystalline rocks in Canada, area ot, 28.
Culture of wheot In Canada, 68.
Currency, provincial, of Nova Scotia, 708.
Customs revenue of Canada in 1851-61, 800.
Daliiousie College In Nova ScoHo, 708.
Dams suggested as a means of flooding
shoals on the St. Lawrence, 169.
Dawson, Dr., remarks of, on the iron ore of
Nova Scotia, 854-356.
Day In the wilderness of Canado 88-90.
J>eaf and Dumb Asylums in Low er Canada,
5;is.
Deaf and Dumb in Nova Scotia, 688; insti-
tutions for. 711.
Deaf and Dumb School in Upper Canada, 467.
Deaths In Nova Scotia, 681, 682.
Debt, public, of Nova Scotia, 708; of Princo
Kdward Island. 741.
Di'fenco, importance of an inter-colonial
railwav for, 24.T-247.
Dononvllle, M. D., hostility of, to English
trading In Canada in 1686,271; letter of,
to Gov. Dongan, 272.
Deposits, sn|H'rficlal, of Canada, 818; tertiary,
of New Brunswick, 589.
Descriptive account of New Brunswick,
55'i ; by counties, 627-6.')8.
Destroyers of wheat In Canada, 64-67.
Dhectness of Canadian navigation, 180.
Discovery and early fortunes of Nova Scotlfi.
654-059.
Diseases, ordinary, In New Brunswick, 622;
In Nova Scotia, 681, 682.
"Documents de Paris," early history of
Canada contained In, 27.
Dogs, eiiiplovment of, in winter travelling
In Canada, 90-94.
Doollttlc, Kev. L., Bishop's College, Len-
nox ville, projected by, MO.
Dongan, Governor, letter of, to Denon ville
(note), 2T2; letter o^ on beaver hunting,
276.
Porcbester, Lord, action of. In relation Ur
•duoation in Canada, ^77.
Douglas, Pir Howard, governoi of New
Brunsu ick, 1824, MO.
Douglustown, destruction of, in the great
Miramichi tire, 550.
Duncombe, Dr., remarks o*', on the Com-
mon Schools of America hi 1836 396.
Dundas Street, established by Qovcrnof
eimooe, 113.
Durham boat, history and description of
the, 184.
Durham boats, expenses of, from Lnchtne
to Kingston, 148; capacity of, 149: time
and .expense of, fi-om Kingston to Lachlne,
149 ; trude done in, 149.
Durham, Lord, inter-colonial railway pro-
iMSed by, 238 ; remarks of, on education
In Lower Canada, 502.
Earlt educational efforts in Upper Canada,
874; in Lower Canada, 1682-1769, 485-4S8.
Early history of New Brunswick, 542-546 ;
of Nova ScoHa, 654-659; of Prince Kd-
ward Island, 729-788 ; of Newfoundland,
714-747.
Early navigation of the 8t Lawrence, 146-
Early roads in Canada, 111, 112, 116.
Early trade of Canada, 268-275.
Earnings and expenses of railways In
Canada, 196.
Ecclesiosticul condition of Nova Scotia,
711-714.
Educational ->ommunities in Lower Canada,
Educational djpartment for Upper Canada,
421.
Education.il legislation in Upper Canada,
from 1806 to 1816, 381.
Educational statistics of Lower Canado, 510.
Education in Lower Canada, historical
sketca of, 4S6-642 ; indebted 'o the Catho-
lic Church, 488; from 1759 to 1800,4^5-
491 ; progress of, from 1801 to 1818. 41'!-
495; from 1819 to 1835. 495-499; from
1886 to 1840, 499-603; progress of, from
1841 to 1845, 603-806; from 1856tolS62,
606-608; public aid to, in 1862,640; table
showing the progress of, in 1S88- '61, 541;
parliamentary gnints for, 511.
Education in New Brunswick, 614 41'..
Education in Newfoundland, 767
Education in Novo Scotia, 704-711.
Education in Prince Edward Island, 739.
Education In Upper Canada, histoi'loal
sketch of, 878-481 ; history of, from 1783
to 1805, 874; legislation In regard to,
from 1806 to 1816, 881; remarks of Mr.
M. Smith on the state of, in 1808-12,
888; popular, from 1816 to 1822, 884:
Mr. Gourloy's remarks on, in 1817, 3S5:
letter of Mr. Wm. Crooks In relation
to, in 1818, 887; fitful progress of, from
1822 to ia36, 390; parliamentary inqnlrj'
as to, and its results, from 1836 to 184.^,
896; progress of, from 1844 to IS-^S. 899;
higher and intermediate, from 1858 to
1860, 401 ; summary of institutions for,
407; progress of, 419; government ottice
of, 421 ; additional supplementary aids
to, 476; endowments f<jr, 477; number,
character, and value of institutions for.
^^^■-4h.
INDEX.
766
Brnoi of New
f, in the great
. from Lacblne
y of. 149 : time
stoii tu Lacbioe,
al railway pro-
)f, on education
Lawrence, 14ft-
4T3, 479 ; tables showing the progress of,
from 1842 to 1861, 480, 481.
Education offlce in Upper Canada, 421.
Electric Telejrraph in Canada, 266; in New
Brunswick, 267, 6()5 ; in Nova Scotia, 267.
701; in Prince Edward Isloud, 742; in
Newfoundland, 7ft9.
Elementary Schools in Lower Canada, 634.
Elgin colonization road in Lower Canada,
62, 808.
El^in. Karl of, remarks by, on the educational
system of Canada, 416.
Elm, the white and red in New Brunswick,
566-S68.
Emigration of American loyalists to Canada,
10).
i^ndowmeLts, educational In Upper Canada,
477.
England, discreditable raihread transactions
in, 225. 227.
Ennlskilien. pctroieum found at, 846; yield
of oil at. 849: e.xport of petroleum from,
to England, 350.
Episcopal Church In Nova Scotia, 712.
Episcopalians in Prince Edward Island, 739.
Europe, large export of lumber to. 68.
Exhibitions of the Agricultural Association
of Canada West, 44^8.
Expcn<liture and revenue of Canade, 161,
162, 800, 301 ; of New Brunswick, 617; of
Nova Scotia, 702; of Prince Edward Is-
laml, 741.
Exports and imports between Canada and
the United States in 1850-60, 299.
Exports and imports of New Brunswick,
from 1823 to 1860, 607; of Nova 8cotil^
GOO, 691; of Prince Edward Island, 738;
of Newfoundland in 1845-1859, 756.
Exports from Canada, In 1S52-'61, value ot
294.
Exports from Canada to the United States
in 1851-61, 297.
Exports of fish ftom New Brunswick, In
1850-1855,585; from Newfoundland, 756.
Exports of lumber from Quebec, 287.
Exports of planks and boards from Canada
to the United States, 69.
Exports of wheat from Canada, 62, 63, 290,
291.
Exports to Great Britain from foreign ond
Colonial ports in 1*30, 292.
Exports, total, from Quebec, in 1809, 292.
Exports via the St Lawrence in 1857-61,
value of, 298.
Express Companies In Canada, 248-251. .
Extravagance of the Grand Trunk Itailroad
Company, 212.
" Fabbiqub" School Act In Lower Canada,
provisions of, 498.
Faorique Schools In Lower Canada, 536.
Failure of the Grand Trunk Railway, causes
of, 206-214.
Fall of rai n at Toronto, 28, 81;»at Montreal, 29.
Fares, cheap, influence of on railroad travel,
248-250.
Farm practice in Lower Canada, 84.
Farms, French Canadian, divisions of, 38.
Forms in Upper Canada, value of, 68.
Felspar, where fonnd in New Brunswick,
606,
Fertile Belt of the North- West Territory,
76-78; fertility i>f, 80.
Fever and ague unknown In New Bruns-
wick, 6,%6.
Fire, great destruction of pine forests by, 70
Fire, the great Miramlchi. of IS'A 546-551.
First estikbllshment of com.non schools In
Canada, 384.
Fish cured in Nova Scotia it 1S51 and 186L
688.
Fish, dried, exported from Newfoundland in
1849 and 1857, 754.
Fish exported from New Brunswick, in
1850-1855,585.
Fish, fresh-water, of Newfoundland, 749.
Fish of Nova Scotia. 676.
Fisheries of New Briitiswick, 674-5S5; of
Nova Scotia, 688; of Prince Edward Island,
736, 737; of Newfoundland, 753-":)«.
Fitful progress of cducutiou in Canada from
1822 to 1886, 890.
Fogs on the Bay of Fundy, 656.
Forest, tables of the produce of, in Canada,
71, 72; Canadian, value of the products of,
ft'om 1853 to 1861, 2S7; product of, in
New Brunswick in 1S49-1!?55, 574; in
Prince Edward Island. 734.
Forest industry of Cuna<lii, 64-74.
Forest-trees in New Brunswick, 5('il-.574.
i'orges, iron, at Three Kivors and in Batis-
can, 819.
Form of government of New Brnn.»wick,
609; of Nova Scotia, 714; of Prince hu-
ward Island, "39; of Newfoundland, 7i'8.
" Forty Thieves," the, in the American Con-
gress, 225.
Fossiliferous rocks of Canada, area of, 27.
Frazer river, gold discoveries on, 306.
Fredericton, in New ISrunswick, settlement
of, 544.
Free grants of lands In Canada, 303 ; condi-
tions of, 308.
Free ports, Canadian, value of imports at,
299.
Freight trailic on Canadian railroads, 250.
French Canadian farms, divisions of, 33.
French population removed from Nova
Scotia in 1765, 658.
French IJivor and Ottawa navigation, 159-
161.
Friends' Semln.iry, near Picton, 39S-4;}3.
Frontenac and Mailawaska colonization
road, 306.
"Frontenac," the tlrst iti;anie» on Lake On-
tario, 1 38.
Front roa£» in Lower Canada, 105.
Fro.st and snow, travel and tniusport facili-
tated by. in Canadl^ 117-119.
Froots in -',ew Brunswick, effect of, on tho
land, 558.
Fruit-growers' Asboclation for Upper Can-
ada, 4a
Fruits and vegetables in New Brun!"viok,023.
Fulton, how I'ar indebted to Symington, 13|,
Furs and skins exports of, from Canada in
1863-61, 284.
Fur trade of Canada, 276-2S4.
Oalbna, where found in Canada, 3'JO.
Game and wild beasts in New Bi mswlck,
«21.
766
INDEX.
Ga8p6 Dnsln, In the Gulf of St. Lawrci.ce, a
free jxirt, 299; value of imports at, 299.
Gaspu, steatn niid .siiillng vc-SHels built at, 188,
Gauge (III Oinatliiiii railways, 253-25.5.
Gciunil Milling Associulion of Nova Scotia,
860, 862.
Geneial Uailroail I,aw of New Yo'rk, 284
Geojjrajihical suriiiee of Ciinada, 20-22.
Geological 8tr;ii:tiire of Canada, 810-318.
GeoloL'y of New liriinBwick, 64;.')-590.
Gloucester county, New Brunswicic, descrlp-
tion of. C29.
Godoilcli, lirantforil and Buffalo Railway,
history of, 234-2y0.
Gold, discoveriea of, in Canada, 830; In Nov;
Scotia, SftO-iiSO; amount of, obtained by
the Ciiniida «<iM Mining Co., in 2851-2,
831 ; lunountot.taiiied.in Nova Sco*ia, 359 ;
discoveries of. in RrJtish Columbia, 865-
b07; discoveries of, in Vancouver Island,
867; yield <if, in British ColumbiI^ 868,
869; discoveries of, in the North- West Ter-
ritorv. 371.
Gold-llel(i8 of Nova Scotia, 857, 858; sur-
veyed .and divided, 859; advantages of,
860; of British Columbia, 866.
Gore, Governor, trustees of public schools
In Upper Canada appointed by, In 1807,
{not/), iis2.
Gourlay. M i . Kobort, remarks of, on the state
of education in Canada in 1817, 886.
Ooverniiient buildings at Ottawa, 96.
Goveriiaient, form of, in New Brunswick,
609; in Nova Scotia, T14; in Prince lEd-
waid Island, 739; In Newfoundland, 768.
Government, imperial, action of, in relation
to an inter colonial railway, 242.
Governor.s of Nova Scotia, list ot; from 1710
to IS.')S. 725.
Governors of Prince Kdward Island, list of,
from 1770 to 1859, 741.
Graded roadsin Canada, 120; length and cost
of, 127, 128.
Grain portajre railways In Canada, 23ft-288.
Grammar schools in Canada, letter of the
Duke of Portland in relation to, 879; ef-
forts of government for the establishment
of, 879; Or. IJuldwin'sand Mr. Strachun's,
881; masters of, in 1818 (note), 889; dis-
trict schools converted into, in 1839, 897;
improvements made in, in 1853, 402.
Grammar schools in New Brunswick, 614.
Oramniar schools in Nova Scotia, 706.
Grand Hanks of Newfoundland, 761.
Grand Lake, New Hrunswlck, fiOl.
Onuid Semindire at Montreal, 523.
Grand Seminary ut Quebec, 613.
Grr.nd Trunk Kail'voy, history of the, 197-
206; causes of failure of the. 206-214;
amount of aid granted U) by government,
218; no return trillic on, 247; connection
of express companies with, 260-258.
Granite, where found iu New Brunswick,
692.
Grants, free, of lands in Canada, 803 ; con-
ditions of, 306.
Orant* made by Canada to the Grand Trunk
littilway Co., 208.
Grants, parliamentary, for educational pur-
poses in Canad.'i, ft-om 1832 to 1861, 541.
Granliito, where found In New Brunswick,
COl.
Gravel roads in Canada, 122.
Great Western Kali way, account of govern-
ment aid granted to. 218; history of the,
229-238; items of the cost of, 1!30; un-
necessary cost of, 231 ; defects in the lo-
cation of, 231 ; excellent eijuipnients and
management of, 233; gauge adopted by,
254.
Grenville College, building erected for, •«
Prescott (note), 894.
" Oritfon," the. La Salles ship on the lakes,
270.
Grindstones, where manufactured In New
Briuiswick, 598.
Gulf of St Lawrence, fisheries in the, 680-
588.
Gypsum, where found In Canada, 840 ; In
Nova Scotia, 853 ; uses of. 340 ; ngricul-
tural and commercial value of, 841 ; re-
marks of Sir Wfli. Logan on, 341; amount
of, annually raised in Canada. .S41 ; value
per ton, 842; where found In New Bruns-
wick, 592.
Habitans, tenacity of, for old customs, 105.
Hackmatack, or American larch, in New
Brunswick, 662.
Haddock fishery in the Bay of Fiindy, 577.
Hake fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 676 ; in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 581.
Halibut fishery In the Bay of Fundy, 578.
Halifax, history and description of, 721-723.
Harbors of New Brunswick, 627-653; of
Nova Scotia, 662; of Prince Kdward
Island. 729 ; of Newfoundland, 747.
Harvey Hill copper mine, 826.
Hastings colonization road, 805.
Hay, production of, In Canada, 60.
Healthfulness of New Brunswick, 656 ; of
Nova Scotia, 666.
Hemlock spruce of New Brunswick, 6(58.
Uerrinf fishery of the Bay of Fundy, 677 ; in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 582.
Herring fishery of Newfonndland, 755.
li'iBsian fiy, ravages of, in Canada, 5v).
IIij<;;'!.nder8, settled on Prince Edward
Island by the Earl of Selkirk, 731.
Hind, Professor, remarks of, on the value and
uses of gypsum, 840; on slate, 343.
Ilistoricar slietch of education in Upiior Can-
adl^ 878-481 ; in Lower Canada, 485-642.
History, early, of New Brunswick, 642-52 •
of Nova Scotia, 654-659 ; of Prince Kd-
wanl Island, 729-788 ; of Nowlbundland,
744-747.
History of the Hudson's Bay Company, 279-
2S4.
Iloriistone, where found in Now Bruns-
wick, 696.
Horseboat, no longer unid !n Ciinada, 186.
Horse railways In Cana.'ian cities, 256,
256.
Horticultural Societies in Uiiper Canada, 60.
Horton Academj in Nova Scotia, 707.
Hudson's Bay Company, history of the,
279-284.
Hull iron mine hi Canada 610.
Humidity of climate oi T ro.ito, table of, 80.
Uuronian system of rocks in Canada, 811 ;
iron ores found in, f*10; cupriferous veina
In, 822.
\
INDEX.
767
Hydronlio cement, tnKteriaU for, where
found in Canada, 842.
loKLAND spar, where found in Kew Bruns-
wick, 693.
Idiots and '<inatics in Nova Scotia, OSS.
Iinmigriuit agencies in Canada, 802.
ImmiurantB, number arrived at Quebec, in
18.')U-61, 301 ; arrival and distribution of,
in 1861,302; tox on, 802; number of, ar-
rived in New Brunswick In 1844-60, 627.
Immi^'rants tu New Brunswick, inturmatlon
for, 619-628.
Immigration, expenditure in 1861, 802.
Immigration into Canada, 301-808.
Immigratliin, total, ft-om Great Britain, from
1815 to 1S68, 808.
Imperial government, action of, in relation
to an inter-colonial railway, iii.
Imports and exports between Canada and
the United States in 1850-('>0, 299.
Imports and exports of New Brunswick,
from 1823 to 1860, 607; of Nova Scotia,
690,691; of Prince Kdward Island, 738;
of Newfoundland, In 1845-1869, 756.
Imports from the United States into Cana-
da In 1861-01, 297.
Imports Into Canada from British and for-
eign ports, in 1852-61, 293 ; value oi; 293,
294.
Imports, value of, at Gaspd Basin and Sault
Ste. Marie, 297.
Imports via tho St. Lawrence, in 1857-61,
value of, 298.
Improvement of the rirer St I<iwrence,
161-169.
Incus, of Peru, magnificent roads cinstruct-
ed by, 103.
Indian corn, production of, in Canada, 60.
Indian salmou-spcorlng in Labrador, 88-87.
Indians in Upper Canada; benefits of the
Common School Act extended to, in
1824, 391 ; schools for, 877, 429.
Indians, Mon?agnals, of Labrador, 82.
Indians, tribes of in New Brunswick, 624-
626.
Industrial and Commercial College of St.
Michel, 627; of Notre Dame de Levis,
528; of Laval, 623; Ste. Marie do la
Beauce, 528; of Veroheres, 629; St. Ger-
main de Kimouski, 629; of Sherbrooke,
629; of La Chute, 529; of Longueuil,
680.
Industrial resources of Nova Scoti-i, 684; of
Prince ii^dward kland, 786 ; of Newfound-
land, 751.
Information for immigrants to New Bruns-
wick, 619-628.
Inheritance, law of^ in New Bnmswick,
612.
Inland hills of Nora Scotia, soils of; 669.
Institute of Pr:nco Kupert's Land \iioU),
474.
Institutes, Bclentiflc, in Upper Canada, 473.
Inter-coloiilal Uailway, proposed, 238-247.
Interest, rate of in New Brunswick, 619.
international communication in New Bruns-
wick, 600-605.
Invasion of the wilderness in Canada, 61.
Invasion, value of an inter-colonial railway
In cose of, 245-847.
Iron ochres of Canada, whew fnr.nd, 882;
remarks of Sir Williain lAgaa on, 838,
Iron ore^ where found in Canada, 31,V320:
characteristics of Canadian, 817-813:
where found in Nova Scotia, 3.M. 850; cost
of, in various localities, 8.V-, 'ShCi ; dl»cov-
eries of in New Brunswick, 302; abun-
dant in New Brunswick, 591.
Iron pyrites, remarkable lode of, in Now-
fonudland, 864 : abundant in New Bruns-
wick, 594.
Iron steamers on Chaudl6re and Chats Lake^
154.
Iroquois Indians, in possession of Upper
Canada in 1777, 100.
Iroquois river, navigation of, 161.
Jadk, found in New Brunswick, 595.
Jasper, where found in New Bruns'vick, 69S,
Jesuit College do Ste. Marie, Montreal, 526.
Jesuits, forfeited estates of, in I>ower
Canada, 489, 491 ; oducHtlonal efforts ot,
in Canada, bU.
Johnston, Prof, on the agricultural capa-
bilities of New Brunswick. 654.
Juliette Industrial College, 526.
Jnulo'nl inotitutlons in New Bnmswtck,
610; in Nova Scotia, 717; in I'rinw lid-
ward Island, 740 ; in Newfoundland, 758.
Ebefer, Mr. Thos. C, the originator of the
Victoria Bridge, 267.
Kennebecasis river, in New Brunswick, 601.
Kent county. New Brunswick, descrlptloii
0^632.
Kings College In New Brnnswick, 614.
Kings College in Nova Scotia, 707.
Kings College, Toronto, charter obtained for
in 1827, 391; charter of, amended in 1887,
897; foundation stone of. laid in 1842, 899;
name of, changed to University cf To-
ronto, 400.
Kings county. New Brunswick, description
of, 642.
Knox's Theological College, 899, 488.
Labor, demand for. In New Brunswick, 620,
Labrador, Peninsula, 80-88.
Lachlne Canal and French River, proposed
canals between, 168-101.
Lachlne Cunal, when projected, 1 50; con-
struction and enlargeiiiont of, 100.
La Chute, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lego of 623.
Ladles of Ste. Croix, 537.
Ladies of the Congro-ration of Notre Dame,
schools of, in Canada, 630.
Ladles of the Sacred Heart, 537.
Lake Champlain, importance of a largo canal
connecting it with the St Lawrence, 182.
Lake Champlain route of navigation, 151.
Like Huron and Ottawa cuiiaU, proposed,
158-161.
Lake Huron, description of, 14; Importance
of a railway to, from Quebec, 247.
Lake Niplsslng, i)rcip()5cd ciinals to, 169-161 ;
Iron ore found near, 816.
Lake Ontario, descriiition of, 16, 10; the first
Steamboat, on, 138-141 ; railway fh>m,to
■Ui I
.il"1." ::||i£{: ,■!
fir
^68
INDSS.
the Falls of Nta^ra, 191 ; system of rocks
on tbe north shore of, 312.
LAkcs, tlio great, 14-20; comporatlTO area,
eluvatiiin uiid depth of, 20; inUuunco of,
oil the climate of CunoUo, 27; early navi-
gation of, 136; nunil)cr and tonnage of
Cunudiun vessels on. In 1S50-1861, 136;
gteuiii vessels on, 141 ; passenger steamers
on, no lon^;r sustained, 233.
Lake St. Clair, description ot, IS.
Lake St. Peter, chunncl of, deepened by
dredging, lUT).
Lakes of New Brunswick. 601 ; Nova Scotia,
061; Trince Edward Island, 729; New-
foundland, 74a
Lakes on the Ottawa river, 94 96.
Lake 8ui)erlor, description o^ 14; commn-
nlcatlons with, 7S; copper treasures of^
known In 16S7, 271.
Lake Winnipeg;, great inland basin of, 74.
Lainberville, Kother de, on the prices of
beaver skins, 276.
Land, tenure of. In New Brunswick, 612;
clearlM!; wild. In New Brunswick, 621 ;
granted and ungranted In Nova Scotia, 702.
Land (juestion, the, the standing grievance
of I'rincc Edward Island, 782, 742.
Lands, free grants of, in Canada, 808; en-
dowments of, for educational purposes in
U|>per Canada, 477.
Lands, crown. In Canada, 803; In New
Brunswick, how sold, &53 ; la Nova Scotia,
702.
Lands set apart for educational purposes in
Lower Canada. 540.
Lanil under cultivation in Newfoundland,
752.
Lapralrie, railway from, to St. John's, 190.
Lareli, .\uierican, In New Brunswick, 662.
La Salle, voyage of, on the Lakes in the
" Qrlffon," 270.
L'Assoniption Classical and Industrial Col-
lege, established In 1S32, 626.
L'Assoniption College established at Sond-
wlcli In 1865-6, 402.
Laurentlaii series of rocks, 28, 27.
Laurentiun system of rocks in Canada, 810,
Laurentide Mountain';, 21.
Laval, Bishon de, seminary founded by, at
tluebec, 1078, 486.
Laval, Industrial and Commercial College
of, 628.
Liu'iil, University of. at Quebec, 608-612.
Law course In the Lpper Canada Universi-
ties. 444.
Law, disregard of railro<id companies for, 227,
Law of Inheritance In New Brunswick, 612.
Law school of Osgoode Hall, 443.
I.,uw schools In Lower Canada, 688.
Law Society of Upper Canada when cs-
tabMshud (note), Hi; law course 0^444-
448.
Laws of Nova Scotia, 71T.
Laws respecting repair of roads In Lower
Caiiadis 104-108: In Up?er Canada, 109, 110.
Lea<l mine, the " liamsay," 820.
liCad ores, where found in Canada, 820.
Leod ores, where found in Now Brunswick,
691.
Le Jcune, Father, first Canadian school
opened by, at Quebec, 1032, 485.
Lengtli o.' railways in Obnada, 198,194,
Letters transmitted In Canada In 1862 and
1860, 116; carried by Canadian ocean
steamers, 144: received at and sent from
the Education Ottice in Upper Canada, 422.
Libraries, collegiate and other, in Upper
Canada, 474; In Lower Canada, D;}9,
Library system of Upper Canada, 414, 421.
Life in the Canadian wilderness, 87.
Lighthouses in Canada, cost of, 178.
Limestone where found In New Brunswick,
692.
List of articles necessary for a settler going
into the bush, 804.
Literary associations in Upper Canada, 470;
in Lower Canada, 639.
Lithographic stone, where found in Canada,
884.
Liverpool and N. A. Steamship Cj., 142.
Live stock in Upper Canada, 6:J; In New
Brjnawlck, 627-663; in Nova Scotia, 687;
In Prince Edward Island, 736 ; In New-
foundland, 752.
Loan fund, municipal, In Canada, amounts
taken from, for railway purposes, 216, 217.
Local works in Canada, cost of, 178.
L<jcks for canals, advantages of timber in
the construction of, 161, 175.
Locks for batteaux constructed by tho
French, 147.
Locks on Canadian canals, 161-166.
Locks on the Welland canal, not adapted to
side-wheel steamers, ISO.
Locomotives and cars on Canadian rail-
ways in 1860, 196.
Locomotives, improvements made In, by
George Stephenson, 187-189; the first
used m Upper Canada, 1U2.
Logan, Sir Wm., provincial geologist for
Canada, 810; remarks of, on Canadian
iron ochres, 883; on mica, 336; on slate,
848 ; on petroleum, 348 ; value of the re-
searches of (note), 472.
London.rail way from, to Burlington Bay, 190.
Ijongevity in Nova Scotlo, 666.
Longevity, instances of. In Newfoundland,
760,
Longueuil, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lege of, 630.
Lost Chaudidre, 96.
Lower Canada, area of, 14; agrlcnltural his-
tory of, 82-39 , tables of agricultural pro-
ducts of, 86, 36 ; comparative progress of
in agriculture, 41 ; falling utf in the pro-
duction of wheat in, 62; In 1777,100;
revenue of^ between 1791 and 1841,162;
hisiorical sketch of education in, 486-642 ;
academics in, 630.
LoyaliBt^ Ame-!can, emigration of, to Can-
ada, 101.
Lumberers, operations of, in Canada, 67, 72.
Lumbering in Nova Scotia, 693.
Lumber trade of Canada, 67-74. 284-289.
Lumber, value of exports of, from Canada,
60; large export of to Europe, 68.
Lunatics and Idiots In Nova Sootiu, 683.
Luthenm Church in Nova Suotla, 713.
Macadam roads in Canada, 123; length and
cost of, 127, 12a
Macfurlane, Mr. Thomas, on tho manuihO"
ture of bichromate of potash, 832.
INDEX.
769
|r a settler going
)cr Canada, 470;
t'ound in Canada,
n Canadian rail-
Commercial Col-
i^ration of, to Can-
o, 123 ; length and
MtiGill College at Montreal, founded by Hon.
James McOill, 516; characteristics of, 615;
statistics of, 510; course of study in, 517;
honors in, 518; faculty of arts in, 516-
619; faculty of mcdiciiio in, 510; faculty
of law in, 519.
Meani, Hon. Jamcs, founder of McOill Col-
lege at Montreal, 516; biographical notice
ol' (no^e), 616.
McGregor, Mr., on the beauty of American
forests, 567.
Mackerel flsherj' in the Bay of Fundy, 678;
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 682.
Mailawaska river, 600.
Mails, remuneration for carriage of, to the
Grand Trunk Co., 258.
Maltland. Sir PercKrine, efforts of, for the
l)ro[notion of education in Upper Canada,
890, 391.
Manganese ores, where found in Kew
Brunswick, 591.
Mania, railroad, in England, 225, 227.
Manufactures in New Brunswick, 599 ; in
Nova Scotia, 094; in Prince Edward
Island, 787 ; in Newfoundland, 758.
Manur(!S, mineral In Canada, 838.
Maple sugar, manufacture of, In New Bruns-
wick. 565.
Maple-trees of New Brunswick, 564.
Marble, where found in New Brunswick,
593.
Marmora, beds of iron ore at, 816.
MdMniic/iunetts Teao/ter, opinion of the
editor of, as to education in Canada (note),
874.
Masson Industrial College, 626.
Matane anil Cape Chat colonization road, 806.
Mechanics' Institutes In UpperCanada, 468;
in Lower (/anada, 639.
Medical course in the Upper Canada Uni-
versities, 452.
Medicine, schools of. In Upper Canada, 450.
Meilleur, Dr. J. B.. ai)polnted superintend-
ent of education in Lower Canada in 1880,
503.
Merrltt, lion. W. IT., projector of the Wcl-
land canal, 178.
MetnllllVrous rocks of New Brunswick, 863.
Metapedta colonization road, 806.
Meteorolojiy of Canada, 28-81; of New-
foun<"and, 751.
Methodist Cimrches In Canada, have no the-
ological school, 489.
Methodists, We.sleyan, academy of the, in
Upper Canada, 892, 393 ; female college of,
at Hamilton, 434; theological text-books
of, 442 ; academy of the, In Now Bruns-
wick, 615.
Mica, where found In Canada, 335 ; remarks
of -ir Wm. Logjin on, 835; value of, in
the London market, 836.
Mlcinuc Indians of New Brunswick, 625.
Michigan line of railway, leased by the
Grand Trunk Co., 204.
Michlpicoten Island, nickel found on, 822.
Miles of railway In Canada, 192. 196.
Millcetes, an Indian tribe of Now Bruns-
wick, 625, 626.
Miiierite found at Brompton lake, ""»9.
Mills and maimfactorles in New P unswick,
699.
Mills in Newfoundland, 768.
Mineral mannres of Canada, 838.
Mineral resources of Canada, 808-8,'50; of
Nova Scotia. .S.'MMOO; of New Brunswick,
860-3C0, 590-6;i9; of Ncwfoimdiand, 863-
865; of Biitisli Columbia ami Vancouver
Island, 865-371 ; of the Noith- West Ter-
ritory, 871, 872.
Mines, minerals, and quarries In New
Brunswick, 690-599.
Mining In Canada and In England, 82T.
Mimr Seminary at Quebec, 613.
Mlq lelets, French flsherlcs at the, 760.
Miramlchl, description of the great Are In,
646-561.
Miramlchl river, 602.
Missionaries, early French, traders In tun,
277.
Miste-shipu river, of Labrador, 82.
Model grammar school for Upper Canada,
422-456; regulations of, 4.56.
Model Schools and Normal College In Nov»
Sc-.tio, 709.
Model Schools In Lower Canada, 533.
Molsic Klver, of Labrador, 82.
Molson, Hon. John, builder of the first
steamboat in Canada, 140.
Molson, the brothers, munificent donations
of, to M'Glll College, 516.
Montiignais Indians, of Labrador, 82.
Montreal, situation of, 13 ; climate of, 28-31 ;
water communications of, with New
York, 181; disadvantages of, compared
with New York, 179 ; street railway in
265; Classical ('ollcge and Theological
Seminary of, 628.
Montreal Copper Mining Co., 322, 828.
Montreal ocean steamships, table of ton
nago, power, and '•opacity of, 145.
Montreal Telegraph Co., progress of, 266.
Moose. Factory, 282.
Morality, railway, in America, England and
Canada, 221-228.
"Moral responsibility" of Canadians for
the failure of the Grand Trunk Hallway,
205, 211.
Morrin Classical College, Quebec, 680.
Mountains of Canada, 21, 22; of the North-
West Territory, 76; of Newfoundland, 74&
Municipalities in Canada, amounts taken by.
from the loan fund for railways, 216, 217*
disregard of obligations by, 217.
Municipalities in Upper Canada, number
of, 409.
Municipal railways i." f"r.riada, 214-221.
Museums in Upper Canada, 473.
Muskoka colonization road, 806.
Naniamo, Vancouver Island, coal mining
operations at, 370; coal exported from, in
1861, 871.
Natural resources of Now Brunswick, 626 ;
of Nova Scotia, 666; of I'rlnce Edward
Island, 784; of Newfoundland, 747
Navigation and commerce In N''.,v Bruns-
wick, 606-609 ; '" ^'•v.. 3cotla, 690-698:
of Prince Edward Island, 787 ; of New-
foundland, 766.
Navigation In Canada, progress of, 181-141;
the three great routes Of, 151-150; cost
of public works for the improvement of,
178; rallwoys conhot compete with, 208
770
INDEX.
NavlRfttlon between Montre»» and Quebec,
opttninii; and clusing of, 274.
Navigation between the Ottawa and French
Kivcr, l&rf.
Navipntlon of the St. Lawrence, directness
oi; 130 ; early, 146-150.
"Navvy," the English, during the railway
mania, 226.
Newark, early classical schools opened at,
078.
New Brunswick, action of, with ropard to
an inter-colonial railway, 2-'JS. 240; min-
eral resources of, 300-868; .V.IO; early his-
tory of, .M2-646; descriptivo and statis-
tical account of, 552; elimnte of, 556;
course of the seasons in, 557 ; the forest
In, 661; fisheries of. .^74: jreolopjr of, 585 ;
DiineR, minerals, and quarries in, 590 ;
ship-buildiop in, 597; mills and manu-
factories in, 599; internal comuiunlcatlon
In, 600; railwoys in, 604; electric tele-
graph lines. in, 267,605; commerce and
navliiration o^ 606; form of (rovernment
ot, 609; judicial instliutionof.OlO; tenure
of land and law of inheritance in, 612; re-
ligious worship in, 618; ed"'jation in, 614:
civil list, revenue and expenditure in, 617;
banks for savings, value of coins, and rate
of interest In, 61S; Information for immi-
grants into, 619; fruits and vegetables in,
628: aborigines of, 624; n.itural resources
of, 626; progress of population in, 027;
description of, by counties, 627-668.
Sew Brunswick telegraph, 267. 606,
Newcastle, destruction ot, in the great Ml-
ramichi fire, 519.
New Kngland. railroad passenger trafflc in,
how sustained, 262.
Ntwfoundland, Grand Banks of, 751.
Newfoundland, mineral resources of, 868-
366; situation, discovery, and early his-
tory of, 744; topography, natural re-
sources, climate, &o., of, 747; industrial
resources of, 751 ; population, civil and
religious institutions, Ac, of, 756.
New ParVamcnt Building In Ottawa, 94,
90-98.
Niagara Falls, descent of, 15.
Niagara Library at Newark In 1801, 381.
Nickel, where found in Canada, 328.
NIcolet, Classical College and Theological
Seminary of, 524.
Normal College and Model Schools In Nova
Scotia, 709.
Normal School for Upper Canada, 456; con-
ditions of admission into, 455.
Normal Schools In Lower Canada, 507, 582.
Northern Hallway, amount of aid granted
to, by government, 218-220; cost less than
was estimated, 220.
North Saskatchewan vallt-y, 73.
Northumberland county, New Brunswick,
description of, 680.
Northwest Company of Montreal, when
formed, 278; incorporated with the Hud-
son's Bay Co. In 1821, 279. 2S0.
North-West Territory, description of, 74-
30 ; mineral resources of, 871, 872.
Norwav House, 282.
NAtro Dame do Levis, Industrial and Com-
mercial College of, 528.
Notre Uamo Mountains, 22.
Nova Scotia, action of. In favor of an Inter
colonial railway. 28S, 240 ; telegraph in. 267,
701; mineral resources of, 850-860; dis-
covery and early fortunes of. 054; posi-
tion, extent, and natural features of, 6«0;
climate of, 663 ; natural resoiu-ees of, 666;
population, statistics, <te., of, 677; in-
dustrial resources ol, 6S4; commercial in-
dustry, 090; public works of, 695; crown
lands of, 702; revenue and expenditure of,
702; edueatloiml institutions of, 704; aca-
demies in, 707 ; ecclesiastical eondition
of, 711; political state of, 714; general
civilization of, 719; literature of. 1-£i.
Nuggets of gold found in Canada, 8:50, 381 ;
in Nova Scotia, 853 ; In British Columbia,
867.
Oak, the red and gray in Now Brunswick,
572.
Oats, production of, In Canada, 59.
Oliservatories, scientific, in Upper Canada,
472.
Occupations, professions, and trades In
Nova Scotia, 080.
Ocean steamers of Canada, 141-146; lines
of, from Halifax, 098.
Ochres, Canadian and French. 333.
Ochres found in New Brunswick, 595.
Oil-stone, where found In New Brunswick,
593,
Orphan children In Canada, legislative pro-
visions for the education of, in 1799, 380.
Ori)h»n schoids in Upper Canada, 467; in
Lower Clanada, 538.
Osborne, Captain, first civil governor of
Newfoundland, 747.
Osgoode Hall, law-school, of, 448.
Ottawa, growth of the rity of, 9C ; new par-
liament buildings at, 91, 96-98.
Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals, proposed,
168-161.
Ottawa and Opeongo colonization road, 61,
806.
Ottawa River, source and tribiitaries of, 94;
directness of, 180; route of navigation,
152-164; timber slides on, 166; table
showing extent and co.st of canals on, 177.
Ottawa valley, resources of, 96.
PAOino and Atlantic, Importance of a prac-
ticable mute between, through British
territory, 372.
Palicozoic roeks of (Canada, 24-27.
Parish schools in New Brunswick, 615-617.
Parliumentiiry grants for educational pur-
poses in Oanadi^ from 1882 to 1861, 541.
Parliament Buildings at Ottawa, 94.
Pai-liatnent, first, of Nova Scotia, 059.
Passengers' act, provincial, i)rovlsions<)f.303.
Passenger steamers on the lakes, business
of, spoiled by the railroads, 238.
Patterson, Walter, first governor of Prince
Kdward Island, 731.
Pearliish, production of, in Canada, 70.
Peas, pro(Iuctlon of. In Canada, 60.
Peat, important uses of, 845; abundance of,
in Canada, 846; immense bog of, in the
Ifiand of Anticosti, 846; where found ID
New Brunswick, 594.
roT of an Inter
cli'Krnpliin.26T,
t; 8r.n-«60; dtg.
of. 054 ; posl-
f''!lt\ir«'8 of, (iliO ;
•soiiiTfs of, ()68;
of, 677; In-
coinmoroiiil In-
of. 095; ei-iin-n
1 CNpcnditiiruof,
ons of, 7()4; aca-
Btlcal condition
i>f, 714; frenural
lure of. -r£i.
;:itm(la, 8:^0, 331 ;
rltish Columbia,
iTow Brunswick,
Kill, 59.
Upper Canada,
and trades In
0,141-146; lines
cli, 333.
swiok. ,TO5.
Nuw Brunswiclt,
u, Icffisl.itive pro-
of, in 1791». 3S0.
' Canadit, 407 ; in
vil governor of
of, 448.
f of, 90 : new par-
06-98.
Canals, proposed,
nization road, 61,
tributaries of, 94;
te of navigation,
on, 166; table
of canals on, 177.
r, 96.
ortoncc of a prac-
tliroiigh British
, 24-27.
iinswick, 016-617.
(■ducacionul pur-
i82 to ISOl, 541.
ttawa, 94.
Sfotia, 059.
provl.tions(if.303.
e lalics, business
ds, 288.
vernor of Prince
Canada, 70.
ado, 60.
5; abundance of,
10 bo^ of, in tbo
where found Id
mDEX.
771
FembertOD, Mr., on the product of gold In
British Columbia, 868.
Pembina Mountain, in the Korth-Weet Ter-
ritory, 7ft.
Peninsula of Labrador, 80-88.
Peniusc'.a, westeni, of Canada, roclcB of the,
818.
Peru, magnificence of the ancient roads of,
108.
Feticodlac river, in New Brunswiclc, 601.
Petit Seminiiire at Montreal, 623.
Petroleum, where found In Canada, 25, 846;
oriein of, 347 ; discovery of, 347 ; llowing
wells of, 349; commercial voluu of, 349;
exportation of, from EnnlsklUcu to Kng-
land, 350.
Phosphate of lime, importance and uses of,
88S; where found in Canada, 839; value
of, per ton in England, 339.
Physical features of C■anadl^ 13-81.
Pictou Academy In Nova Scotia, 706.
Pictou coal nUnes, 850; coal raised at, 851.
Pine, white, of New Brunswick, 561.
Pipe-stone, Indian, where found in New
Brunswick, 595.
Plank roads in Canada, 122; length and cost
of, 127, 128.
Planks and boards, export of, to the United
States from Canada, 69.
Plants and trees of Nov;i Scotia, 606.
Plates in the tubes of \ ictoria Bridge, 261,
262.
Ploughs used in Canada, description of, 40.
Plumbago, where found in Canada, 834-337 ;
uses of, and modes of purifying, 837';
where found in New Brunswick, 691.
Political state of Nova Scotia, 714-719.
Pollock fishery In the Bay of Fundy, 676.
Population of Conada, 82, 99, 102.
Population of Now Brunswick, progress of,
627.
Population of Newfoundland, 766.
Population of Nova Seotli, in the years
176&-1861, 678; comparative increase ol^
679 ; by counties, 679; origin of, 679.
Vopulation of Prince Kdward Island, 788.
Portage railways for grain, In Canada, 280-
288.
Portland, Duke of, letter of. In favor of the
establishment of schools in Canada, 879.
Portland railway, leased by the Qrand
Trunk Co., 208.
Portland railroad gauge, how forced on Can-
ada, 254.
Post-ollices in Canada, table showing the in-
crease of, 116; revenue and expenditures
of. In 1852 and 1860, 116.
Post-offices In Nova Scotia, 701 ; in New-
foundland, 758.
Post roads In Canada, tablo showing the
progress of, 16, 116.
Post travelling In Lower Canada, 110.
Potash, production of, in Canada- 70.
Potatoes, production of, in Canada, 60.
Potsdam sandstone, Parliament bouses at
Ottawa constructed of, 97.
Prairie Plateau of Knperfs Land, 76.
Prairies, winter Journey on the, in Canada,
90-94.
Presbyterian Acadcmv at Halifax, 707.
Presbyterian Church in Novo Scotia, 712.
Presbyterian Colleges in Nuva Scotia, 708.
49
Presbyterians, College established by, at
Kingston in 1841, 397,488; test-books
adopted by, 442.
Prescott, roads of Peru described by, 104.
Present trade of Canada, 290-294.
Prices of timber at Quebec, In 1868-61, 287.
Prince Edward Island, extent and general
features of, 728 ; early history of, 729 ; nat-
ural resources of, 734; industrial re-
sources of, 786 ; population of, TA^ ; re-
ligious denominations in, 738; education
in, 789; civil government, 739; revenue
and expenditure of, 741.
Prince of Wales, donations made by, to
educational instltutiuns In Canada in 1861,
407.
Private schools in Upper Canada, 480; in
Lower Canada, .534.
Prizes awarded at agricultural and cattle
shows in Canada, 45-47.
Produce trade of Canada, 290, 291.
Productions of the forest In Canada, 71 ; In
New Brunswick. In 1I>49-1S.')5. .574.
Products, agricultural, exported from Can-
ada, 201.
Products, agricultural, of Lower Canada, S5,
86 ; of Upper Cunadl^ 01, 62 ; of New
Brunswick, 560, 627-653 ; of Nova Scotia,
687; of Prince Kdward Island, 736; of
Newfoundland, 752.
Professional schools in Upper Canada, 435;
in Ix>wer Canada, 532.
Professions, trades, and occu")ation3 in Nova
Scotia, 680.
Progress of Canada, 99; of New Bruns-
wick, 642-653; of Nova Scotii^ 051-727 ;
of ewfoundland, 744-760 ; of Princo Ed-
ward Island, 728-743.
Progress of education in Upper Canada, 419.
Progress of navigation in Canada, 131-141.
Progress of population in New Brunswick,
627; in Nova Scotia, 678.
Progress of roads in Canada, 116-124
Progress of travel in Canada, 110-116.
Proposed Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals,
168-161.
Prospectus of the Grand Trunk Co., de-
ceptive statements of, 202, 209.
Protestant separate schools iu Canada, 427;
section of the law authorizing (note),
427.
Provincial agricultural association of Upper
Canada, 4^-48.
Provincial Passengers' Act, provisions uf,
808.
Provisions necessary for a settler's family
going into the bush, 804.
Public elementary schools In Canada, 409;
not receiving h-'gialatlve aid, 429.
Public Works of Nova Scotia, 695-702.
Qdadrupkdb, native, of Nova Scotia, 674.
Quarries, minerals, and mines in New
Brunswick, 690-699.
Quarternary deposits of Canada, 24.
Quartz gold veins of Nova Scotia, 369.
Quartz, milk-whl'to,abundont in New Bruns-
wick, 696.
Quebec, climote of, 27, 29 ; steam ond sail-
lug vessels built at, 186: importance of •
railway from, to Lake Huron, 247; ship-
772
INDBZ.
bnUdlng at, In 1T18, S84; tomaga of ves-
sels arnvrd at Quebec from IT&l to 1861,
274; tonnage of Tcssels built at, ft-oin
1791 to 1861, 286; exports of lumber from,
287; shipments of timber from, in 186(>-
62, 289; export of wheat from, 290; total
exports fnini, in ISOS. 292; number of im-
migrants arrived at, in 1850-61, 301.
Quebec croup of rocks, 812.
Quebec Seminaries, 512-616.
Queen's county. New Brunswick, descrip-
tion of. 644.
Rafts on tlie great lakes, 167.
Kailway clinrters granted in Canada, 191,
192.
Railway contractors, American, extensive
operations of, In Canada, 222-224.
Railway contractors in England, extensive
operations of, 200.
Railway magnates and railway passengers,
213.
Railway monopoly, danger from, to the
Western peninsula of Canada, 236.
Railway morality in America, England, and
Canaila, 221-228.
Railway passengers in Canada, annoyances
occasioned to, by express companies, 250.
Railway passenger traffic, influence of cheap
fares upon, 248.
Railway passenger traffic In Now England,
249.
Railway policy in Canada, 247-248; injurious
elfects of, 169-179.
Railways, early, in England, 187-190.
Railways, grain portage, in Canada, 236-238.
Railways in Canada, history of, 190-2r.6.
Railways in New Brunswick, 604.
Railways in Nova Scotia, 695-697.
Railways, municipal in Canada, 214-221.
Railway traffic in Canada, how limited, 248.
Railway transactions in England, discredit-
able, 225-227.
Rain, fall of, at Toronto, 28-81 ; at Hon-
treal, 2a
Rains in New Brunswick, 553.
"Ramsay" lead mine, 820.
Rapids on the St. Lawrence, efforts made to
clear the channels of, 162, 163, 168; de-
scent of, by steamers, 168.
Reciprocity treaty, leading points of the,
296 ; table of Imports showing the effect
of, 297.
R6collet8, or Franciscans, the first mission-
aries and teacuers in Canac^a, 634.
Reglojiolis College (Cotholic), opened at
Kingston in 1846, 895; founded by Bishop
M'Uonnell, 437.
Religious census of Nova Scotia, 880.
Religious statistics of Newfoundland, 757.
Religious teaching in the public schools of
Canada, 416-419.
Religious worship in New Bmnswick, 618.
Reiiair of roads in Canada, 105-110.
Reptiles of Nova Scotia, 675.
Resources, natural, of New Brunswick, 626:
of Nova Scotia, 666; of Prince Edward
l8lftn<l, 734; of Newfoundland, 747.
Bestigouchd county, Now Brunswick, do-
Bcription of, 627.
Beatlgoucb6 river, 602.
Rerenne and expenditures of Canada, UL
162, 800, 801; of New Bmnswick, 607^
017; of Nova Scotia, 702; of Prince Ed-
ward Island, 741.
Revenue of Canadu from cnstoms in 1851-
61, 800.
Revenue of Canadian post-offices in 1869
and 1860, 115.
Revenue of New Brunswick, from 1937 to
1860, 607.
Richelieu river, directness of, 180 ; naviga-
tion of, 151 ; extent and cost of works on.
177.
Rlcbibuctfe river in New Brunswick, 002.
Pideau canal, route of navigation of, 154;
constnicted by the imperial government,
l.'^5; costoi; 162; length of and locks on,
177.
Rigaud Industrial and Conmiercial College,
527.
River fisheries of New Brunswick, 588.
Rivers of Canada, i)eculiaritie8 of, 129-181;
of New Brunswick, 600 ; of Nova Scotia,
661; of Prince Edward Island, 729 ; of
Newfoundland, 747.
Road policy in Upper Canada, 125.
Roads, colonization, in Canada, 61, 805.
Roads in Canada, progress of, 116-124.
Roads in Lower Canoda, 104-loa
Roads in New Brunswick, 003.
Roads In Nova Scotia, 699.
Roads in Prince Edward Island, 742.
Roads in Upper Canada, 109, 110, 126-128;
tables showing the length ar.d cost of, 127,
128.
Roads of antiquity, remarks on, 102-104.
Robb, Professor, on the amount of coal in
New Brunswick, 860, 361.
Boberval, first viceroy of Canada, 268.
Robinson, Major, on tho soil, climate, &&,
of Now Brunswick, 655.
Robinson, Sir John B., remarks of, on the
study of law in Canoda (note), 446.
Rochefoucault, Duke lo la, remarks of, on
education in Canada, in 1795, 876; on
education in Lower Canada, 490.
" Rocket," Stephenson's, speed attained by.
In 1830, 187.
Rook formations of Canada, 23-27.
Rocks, Laurentlan system of in Canada, 28,
27,810; Iluronian system of, in Canada,
811 ; of the western peninsula of Canada,
813.
Rocks of New Brunswick, primary, 685;
trop, 686 ; lower Silurian, 687 ; upper Si-
lurian, 687 ; red sandstone, 588 ; carbon-
iferous, 688.
Rocky Mountains, principal northern passes
In, 79.
Rolph, Dr. Thomas, remarks of, in relation
to common schools in Canada in 1832-3,
898.
Roman Catholic Church In Nova Scotia,
712.
Roman Catholics in Prince Edward Island,
783.
Roman Catholic separate schools in Canada,
422; sections of the act autherlzing
(notes), 423-426.
Roman roads, ancient, remarks on, 103.
Roofing slate, important uses of^ 848; re-
marks of Frot Hind and Sir Wm. Logan
^mki..:^- i
I customs ill itJSi.
ost-offlces In 1852
wick, from 1837 to
88 of, 180; navlga-
• cost of works on,
Brunswick, 002.
niivitration of, 154;
perial government,
til of and locks on,
ioniuiercial College,
[pal northern passes
INDEX.
778
on, 848; where foantl In Canada, 844;
•izes and prices ot, 845; where found In
New Brunswick. 890.
Roof of Victoria Bridge, 263.
Boot crops In Ctinmlu, increase In, 68.
Boot crops, large, in New Brunswick. 659.
Riiyal Gratnii'.ar School at Toronto, 431.
"Boyal Institution for the Advancement of
Learning" In Lower Canada, 492, 494;
powers of, how Ihiiited, 686.
Rupert's Land, description of, 74-SO.
Bust, damapre done by, to the wheat-crops of
Canada, 57.
Bye, [iroductlon of, in Canada. 60.
Ryercon, liov. Dr., charter obUilned by, for
Upper Canada Academy at Cobourp, 393;
blographicul noticeof (rto<«), ?'j3; remarks
of, on American teachers an I text-books
(note), 894 ; appointed supermtendent of
schools in Upper Canada In 1844, 899.
SAnLB Island, a dependency of Nova Scotia,
description of, 726.
Sackett's Harbor, steamer launched at, in
1816, 189.
Saekvllle Academy in Nova Scotia, 707.
Sailing vessels, Canadian, ruKlstered in 1S61,
295.
Ballins vessels on the great lakes. 185; table
of number and tonnage of, built in Cimada,
130.
Bailing vcs.sels, total tonnage of, engaged in
Canadian trade In 1858-61, 295.
Bt Andrew's, New Brunswick, vessels en-
tered and cleared at, in 1849-55, 641.
Bt Anne, in Lower Canada, agricultural
school at, 39.
Bto. Anne do la Focatidre, Classical and In-
dustrial College of, 525.
Sto. Marie de laBeauce, Industrial and Com-
mercial College of, 528.
Stc. Marie de Monnoir, Classical and Indus-
trial College of, 527.
Bte. Th6r6se de Blainville, Classical College
and Theological Seminary of, 625,
Bt. Francis Clnsaiciil College, 628.
St. Francis Xavler's College in Nova Scotia,
708.
St. Germain de Rimouskl, Industrial and
Commercial College of, 629.
Bt. II vacinthe. Classical College and Theo-
losjical Seminary of, 524.
Bt. John, city of, In New Brunswick, 687-
640; shipping and commerce of, 683.
St. John county. New Brunswick, descrip-
tion of, 637.
Bt. John riverln New Brunswick, 600; fish-
eries on, 580.
Bt John's City, Newfoundland, description
of. 760.
St John's, railway from, to Lapralrie, 190.
St Joseph's College at Ottawa, 400, 487.
StLawrence and Atlantic line of railway pur-
chased by the Grand Trunk Company, 208.
Bt Lawrence canals adapted to side-wheel
steamers, 180.
Bt Lawrence river, description of, 16, 20;
appearance of French Canadian settle-
ments on, 85 ; early navigation of. 146-
160; improvement of, 161-109; tableshow-
Ing extent and cost of works on, 177;
adapted' to steam navigation, 181; ralae
of trade Ha the, 298.
St Ijiw.ance river compared with the Mis-
sissippi, 129, 130.
St Lawrence route of navigation, great ad-
vanfnccsof for ocean steamers, 145; pro-
spective value of, to Canada, 2US.
St Mary's College in Nova Scotia. 708.
St Michaers Collige at Toronto, 401,488.
St. Michel, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lege of, in Lower Canada, 527.
St Peter's Canal in Nova Scotia, 698.
St Sulplce, theological seminary oi^ ut Mon-
treal, 487.
Salaries, extravagant, of the odicers of tho
* Grand Trunk Railroad Co., 212.
Salmon flshcries on the St John river, 680 ;
in tho Gulf of St Lawrence, 5S3.
Salmon fishery of Newfoundland. 756.
Salmon-spearing in Laijrador, ^3-87.
Salt-springs, where found in New Bruns-
wick, 596.
Sandstone, where found In New Brunswick,
593.
Saskatchewan river, gold 'ound near tho
head waters of, 371.
Saskatchewan valleys, acco\int of the, 76-78.
SaultSto. Marie, a free port 299; value of
imi)ort8 at 299.
Sault Ste. Marie colonization road, 306.
Savings Bank in Newfoundland, "f)9.
Savings Banks In New Brunswick, 618.
Saw-mills In Canada, 6S; in New Bruns-
%vlck, 599 ; in Nova Scotia, 698.
Scenery of Nova Scotia. 663.
School, agricultural, at St Anne, L. C, 89.
School apparatus, how supplied In Cimada,
416.
School-books, American, remarks of Dr.
liyerson on (note), 894.
School-books, uniform series of, adopted In
Canada, 412.
School for the deaf and dumb In TJppei
Canada, 467.
School-houses In Nova Scotia, 705, 706.
School libraries in Canada, 414, 421 ; in Nova
Scotll^ 706.
Schools in Canada, 373-541. See Educa-
tion.
Scliools in Lower Canada, 485-541.
Schools in Now Brunswick, 615-617.
Schools in Newfoundland, 757,
Schools in Nova Scotia, 705.
Schools- in Prince Edward Island, 789.
Schools in Upper Canada, 373-481.
ScicntlHc institute in Upper Canada, 470.
SclentiQc observatories in Upper Canada,472.
Screw steomers, first lines of, between Liver-
pool and Canada, 142, 143.
Sea-going vcf^^els built at Quebec, between
1791 and 1861, 286.
Seal fishery of Newfoundland, 754 ; statis-
tics of, 765.
Seaports, Canadian and American, compe-
tition between, 178.
Sea-shad fishery of the Bay of Fundy, 678.
Seasons, course of tho. In New Brunswick,
557.
Seasons in Nova Scotia, 665. '
Sedimentary rocks in Canada, area of, 28.
Seed necessary for a BOttlor going into the
bush, 804.
i^
774
INDEX.
Selkirk, Earl of, Hiehlanders settled by on
Prince EUwnni Island, Tiil.
Seminaries and ncadeuiics In Cnnada, 438.
Hcininarios at Quebec, 512-516.
Separate sciiuols in Canada, 422-429.
St^pai-ation of Canada into Upper and Lower,
102.
Settlement of New Brunswick, 543; of
Nova Scotia 1(V Kn(.'ilsh and Germans,
658; of I'rince "Kdwiird Island, 780-783;
of Newfoundland, 744.
Settlers goinjj into the busli. provi8ion^
seeds, and implements necessary for, yo4.
Sexes, relative projiortlKin of, In Nova
Scotia, 683. '
Sliale, l)itnminnns, wiiere found in Ne\^
Hrunswick, bili.
Sliareliolders, Knfrlish, in tlie Grand Trunk,
self-deceived. 202-211.
Shell-fish in the Hav of Fundy, 579.
Shell-H.sh of Nova Scotia, 676.
Shell ninri, where i'mind In Canada, 842.
Shorbrooke, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lego of, 529.
Ship-buildinfT in Ciiniula, 284-286; In New
Urunswick, 5117 ; in Nova Scotia, 692; in
I'rince Kdwanl Island, 737; in Ncw-
foimdland, IM.
ShippinfT of New Brunswick, in IS-M-lseo,
(W, of Novii Scotia, 092; on the great
lakes, l:^.^ 141.
Sldps built in Nova Scotia, in 1868-1801,
698.
Shows, a{?ricnltHral, in Lower Canada, 8S ;
In Upper Canada, 45-47.
ShuIienaiMdie Canal in Nova Scotia, 697.
cshubenacadie, gypsum found on the banks
of, 868.
Side-wheel steamers admitted by the St.
Ijiwrenco canals, 180.
Silver fir in Nev. Brunswick, 578.
Silver, where found in Canada, 829.
Simcoe, Governor, roads opened by, in Can-
ada, 112; bioijraphical sketch of (note),
875; letter of, to the Bishop of Quebec, in
relation to education in Canada. 078.
Simpson, Sir Oeorce, governor of the Hud-
son's Bav Co., 281.
Sisters de I^Assoniiition. 587.
Sisters of Providence. 537.
Sisters of St. Anne, .%7.
Sisters of the Presentation, 587.
Six nation Indians, school for in Upper
Canada, 877.
Sketch of the early history of New Bruns-
wick, 542-540.
Slate, iniportJMit uses of, 843; remarks of
Prof. liind and Sir William Logan on,
843 ; where found in (Janada, 344 ; sizes
and prices of. 846; where found in New
Brunswick, 598.
Slides for timber on the Ottawa, 156.
Slides <m Canadian rivers, cost of. 178.
Smelting works in Canada, 816-818, 819.
Smith, Sir. M., remarks of, on the state of
education In Canada in 1808-12, 883.
Smyth. Maj.-Gen., governor of New Brnns-
vick, 1817, 640.
8dow at Toronlb, fall of, 28-Sl.
8ni>w in New Brunswick, 567.
Soapstone found in New Brunflwick, 696;
where found in Canada, 884.
Social prognM of Kova Scotia, T19.
Societies, ogricDltural, in Lower CanadikST;
in Upper Canada, 42-51.
Societies, literary, of Upper Canada, 470;
of Lower Canada, 689.
Soil, deterioration of, in Canada from oyer-
croiiping, 64.
Soils of Canada, 22 ; of New Brunswick, 655 ,
of Nova Scotia, 067-673 ; of Prince Ed-
ward Island, 784; of Newfoundland, 749.
"South tJoggins Section" of New Bmiii
wick, 862.
Houth Saskatchewan valley, 77.
diiearing salmon by torch-light in Labrador,
83-87.
Special schools in Lower Canada, B32.
Springs, mineral, abundant in Now Bruns-
wick, 696.
Spring wheat, yield of, per acre in Canadi^
58.
Spruce, black and white, in Now Bruns-
wick, 501-573.
Square timber, amount brought to market
in Canada in 1845 and 1S47, 289.
Stage-coaches In Nova Scdtia, 699.
Stages, the first established in Canada, 118-
115.
State endowments of education In Upper
Canada, 481.
Statistical account of New Brunswick, 652.
Statistics of Canadi: :i railways, 198-196.
Statistics of educi>iion in Upper Canada,
479-481 ; in Lower C-anada, 640.
Stiitistics, population, &c., of Nova Scotia,
677-638.
Statistics, religious, of Newfoundland
757.
Steamboats, Introduction of, on Canadian
waters, 118, 114, 187-141; number, ton-
nage, and value of, on the great lakes,
141 ; Cana(iion, registered in 1861, 295;
table of numl>er and tonnage of, built in
Canada, 186, 141 ; Canadian, registered in
1861, 295; total tonnage of. engaged in
Canadian trade in 1868-61, 295.
Steamers, ocean, Canadian, 141-146; lines
of, from Halifax, 698.
Steotite, where found in Canada, 884.
Stephenson, George, improvements made
In locomotives by, 187-189.
Stephenson railway gauge, sufficiency o£
265.
Stone, Lithographic, where found In Can-
ada, 884.
Strachan, Dr. (Bishop of Toronto), bio-
graphical notice of (7)o/e), 880; grammar-
school oi)ened by, at tlornwall. In 1804,
881 ; theological college established by, at
Cobourg, 485.
Street railways In Toronto and Montreal,
255; of little volue in winter, 256.
Subsidies granted by the government of
Canada to ocean steamship companies,
148, 144,
Sugar, maple, manufacture ot, In New
Brunswick, 566.
Sugar maple of New Brunswick, 664.
Sulphate of Barytes, where found in Can-
ada, 884; where found In New Brunswick,
696.
Summary of educational institutions ii
Canada, 407.
INDEX.
775
I Scotia, 719.
li Luwer Canad*. 8T;
Jpper Canada, 470;
I Canada from over-
Ji'w Brunswick, 555,
|)73 ; of Prlnco Ed-
Newfoundland, 749.
In" of New Brum
Ir Canada, 582.
lunt In Now Bruns-
|)cr acre in Canada
te, in Now Bnins-
broiijfht to market
184T, 289.
H-(.tfn, 699.
^lifd in Canada, 113-
cducaflon In Upper
cw Brunswick, 652.
of Newfoundland
lere fonnd In Can-
ture of; in New
»1 inBtitntlonf li
Banbury county, New Bmnswlok, deaerip-
tion of, 645.
Bunbnry, tiie first Englisit settlement in
New Brunswick, MS.
Bunday sciiools in Upper Canada, 429.
8upi>rint(.-ndents and visitors of sciiools in
Canada, 410.
Buporior sulioola in Canada receivine ie$;is-
iutive aid, 481 ; nut receiving public aid,
4;j8.
Siiliploincntary cducntionnl agencies in
I'plier Canada, 407, 40S, 476.
Siuviy for an iiitcr-colonial railway made
umU'riinpcrial diri-otion, 238.
SydiK'y, coal mines of, 951.
^yiiitngton, Wllliatii. the first steamboat
"constructed by, 137.
Synopsis of I'lans for a bridge at Montreal,
Taiilk land of Labrador, 88.
Taclio colonization road, 306.
Taiif-'ier river, gokl found on, 857.
Tarili's, Canadian, 300.
'I'nxi'S, direct, in New Brunswick. C21.
Teuchers, American, In Canada, remarks of
1 )!■. Rolph on, 803.
Tiaclicrs. number of, employed in the com-
mon schools of Canada. 419
Teachers, v -n-oiit, [leusioned in Canada,
415.
Tt aeldng, schools of, in Upper Canada, 458-
4:.7.
Teii'itraph, electric, in Can.ida, 266; in Nova
Scotia, 267, 701 ; in New Brunswick, 2fiT,
00.",; in Prince l«;dward li^land, 742; in
Newfoundland, 769.
TcMiiscou-ita colonization road, 306.
TcMiipeniturc, cmiiparative, at Ilumiltnii,
Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec, 29; table
of, at Toronto, 30; inliiience of the rivers
upon, in Canada, 129; ranite.'i of. In Is'ew
Brunswick, 550. 557 ; comparative, of
Nova Scotia, 004 • in I'l-ince ICdward
Island, 735; in Newfoundland. 751.
Tenure of land in New Urunswick, 612.
Territories of the Hudson's Bay Co., 282,
273.
Text-books, Irish iiation.il series of, adopted
in Canaila, 414.
Text-books, theological. In use in Upper
Canada colleges, 441-443.
Thoolotticfll Institute, established by the
CongregntionalistB at Tori>nto, in 1840,
898.
Theolofripjil Schools in Lower Canada, 532.
riirco Kivers, St. Maurice forges at, 319.
Timber, Canaillan, jirices of, 05; (jiuintlty
and value of exports of. C6 ; Biitisli Amer-
ican, whither exported, 288; shipments
of, from Quel)ec in 1800-62. 289; prices of
at Quebec, in 1858-01,289.
Timber rafts on the gi;eat lakes, 1.67.
Timber slides on tho Ottawa, 160.
Timber territories of (Canada, 07.
Timber trees of New Brunswick, 561-664.
Titanium, ore oi; found at Bay 8t Paul,
819.
Toll-gates on roads in Ui>per Canada, 124.
Tonnage of vessels at Canadian ports in
]8.'>3-«l, 294.
Torch-light, Bpearing Mlmon by, in Lkb-
rador,88-87;
Toronto, climate of, 28-81; Btreet railwara
m, 255.
Toronto an Indian village in 1777, 100.
Toronto School of Mcdreine, 4.62, 458.
Towns and villages in Nova Scotia, 720.
Tracks of wild animals the llrst roads, 118.
Trade of Canaila, early, 268-276; with
Franco, 273; total value of, 294: total ton-
nage engaged In, 295; with the United
States, 299; total amount of, with the
United States, 277 ; channels of, 298.
Trades, professions, and occupations 1b
Nova Scotia, OSO.
Tratisportation. ancient modes of, 102; facil-
ities for in winter in Canada, 117.
Travel and Tnin.sporlation in Canada, 99-
260; in New iirnnswiek, OOO-OO.").
Travel in Canada, jn'o-rress of, 110-115; &-
cilltles for, in winter, 117.
Tr.iveller, American, remarks of, in relation
to education in (^ana.ia in 1794-9, 375.
" Trawl" fishing. Injurious results of, 089.
Treaty, tho iieciprocity, leailing i)oints of,
290; table of imports showing the eft'ect
of, 297.
Trees, enormous destruction of, in Canada,
64, 70.
Trees, forest, In New Brunswick, 561-574,
in Newfoundland, 749.
Trinity College University, faculty of di-
vinity estubiisbed in, 4.S6, regulations of
the theological faculty in, 430.
Trustees of public schools in Upper Canada
In 1807 (note), 3S2.
Tubes of the Victoria Bridge, 269-2Ba
Turnips, production of, in Canada, 60.
Turnpike roads in Canada, 122.
Ukitkd Statks, education in, compared
with education in Canaila.STS; import*
from into Canada In 1851-01, 297.
Universities in Canada, 467-107.
Universities in Lower Canada, 508-680.
University of Bishop's College, Lennox-
ville, 520-523.
University of Jjival at Quebec, 608-612;
course of instruction in, 609; requisites
for degrees in, 510, 511.
University of McGiU College, Montreal, 616-
528.
University of Queen's College, at Kingston,
charter granted to In 1841.397; remarks
on, 400; course In the faculty of arts In,
460; law course, 447, 449 ; medical course
of, 461, 463.
University of Trinity College law course,
447; remarks on, 461; course In the
faculty of arts In, 406.
University of Tonmto, buildings of, com-
pleted in 1859, 404; coiirtnissioners' re-
commendations for the reform and re-or-
ganization of, 405-407 ; law course in, 446,
448; remarks on, 457; course in the
faculty of arts in, 463 ; medical course oi;
460, 462.
University of Victoria College, Cobourg,
opened in 1841, 398; remarks on, 459
course Ih tho faculty of arts in, 405; law
course in, 447 ; medical course of 461, 458
),i.
776
mDEZ.
Upp«r Conkdo, area of, U ; hlntory of agrl-
cultaro In, 89-41; forest Industry In, 64-
74; travel ami transportntiou In, 99-250;
history of rnllwavs In, 19()-2S6; coni-
inerce nml tradu of, 20s-ao7; inlnernl in-
soiirccs uf, 308-350; eduuatluu in, 873-
461.
Ul>per Canada College at Toronto, 481 ; on-
duwMient obtained for, by Sir Jolin Col-
bome, 892.
(Jrgulines, convent of, founded by Mmo. La
Peltrlo In Quebec, 1G39, 535.
Valley of the Ottawa, resources of, 96.
Valley of the Saskutchownn. 76-80.
Vancouver iBJimd and Hritisli Columbia,
mineral resources of, 3ti.>-iJ71.
Varennes, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lejfc of, 530.
Ve.,etable8 and fruits in Now Brunswick,
628.
Vercheros, Industrial and Commercial Col-
lesre of, 629.
Vessels arrived at Quebec between 1764 and
1801, 274.
Vessels belonging to New Brunswick, In
lS.M-60, 599.
Vcosels built at Quebec, between 1791 and
ISCI, 280.
Vessels built In New Brunswick, In 1825-
1800, number and tonnage of, 598.
Vessels, Canadian, registered in 1801, 296.
Vessels ensiigod In Canadian trade, total
tonnage of, in 1858-61, 295.
Vessels entered and cleared at Canadian
nortsin 185.3-1861,294; at ports of New
Brunswick in 1849-lSM, 607; at 8t. John,
New Brunswick. 1850-1855, 638; at St
Andrew's, New Brunswick, In 1849-1855,
641 ; at porta of Nova Scotio, In 1861,
691. 092.
Vessels, number and tonnage of, owned In
New Brunswick In 184S-55, 606.
Vessels on the great lakes, number, value,
and tonnage o^ 141.
Vessels, sailing, on the great lakes, 136;
tabic of number and tonnage of^ built in
Canada, 186.
Victoria Bridge, account of the origin of,
267; description of, 258-203; cost of, 203.
Victoria county, New Brunjwick, descrip-
tion of, 651.
Villages and towns In Nova Scotia, 720.
Voting fur a " consideration" in Congress,
222.
Wabuadimoak L«ko. Now Brunswick, 60t
Water eoinfininlcatloiis of Caiuiilii, 129-186.
Water of the great lakes, purity of, 19.
Welland canal, wlun projected, 150; history
of llie, 171-170; table showing dinieiislou(
auil cost of, 177 ; locks on, not adapted to
side- wheel steamers, ISO.
Welland Hallway, iinportjince of, for grain
portage, 2-36; amount of grain transferred
by, from lake to lake, 237.
"Weiliugtoii" copper inisie, 323.
Wesleyan Academy openccl at Ccbourg in
18.30, 893.
Wesleyan Academy In New Brunswick, 015
Wesleyan Female College at HaMilllon, 484.
Wesleyan theological text-books, 442.
Wcsleyans in IViucc Kilward Island, 789.
Wcstnioreiand county, New Brunswiwk, do
scription of, 0.33.
Wheat. i)ro(Iuct of, In Upper and Lower
Canada, H'i-b'J ; exports of, from Canada,
290, 291 ; transportation of, by portage rail-
ways, 230.
Wheat midge, ravages of, In Canada, 54, 66;
descriptioii of, 50.
Wild beasts and game in New Brunswick,
624.
Wilderness of Canada, invasion of the, 61;
life In, 87; day in the, 88-90.
Williamsburg canals, when constructed, 167.
Win<'s at Toronto, table of direction and
velocity of, 81.
WIn<lsor Academy In Nova Scotia, 700.
Winter roads in Canada, provisions relating
to, 105; advantages of, 117.
Winter travel in Canada, 117; on the Prai-
ries of Canada, 90-94.
Winter wheat, yield of, per ocrc. In Canada,
68.
Wire-worm, ravages of, in Canada, 67.
Woods, Canadian, table of average prices of,
65 ; table of e.'cport of, 66.
Worship, religious, In New Brunswick, 618.
ToNOB Strekt, the portage from Toronto
to Lake Simcoo, when constructed, 1 12.
York county. New Brunswick, descriiitlon
of, 641.
Young Men's Christian Associations In
Upper Canada, 470.
ZiNO ore, no available deposits of^ found iB
Canada, 820.
Zoology of Nova Scotia, 674-67T.
o
K Brunswick, 601
Camulii, 129-185.
l>urlly of, 19.
cti-tl, 150; history
owinKiliniuiisioua
III, nut aUui)tu(l to
mice of, for grain
r grain transferred
i7.
e, 323.
!(l at Cobonrg In
IV Brunswick, Old.
at Hamilton, ■iM.
;-books, 442.
lU'd Island, T89.
c\v IJrunswioli, do
Ipper and Lower
! of, from Canada,
of, by portage rail-
I In Canada, 64, 55;
New Brunswick,
ivaslun of the, CI ;
18-90.
in constructed, 16T.
I of direction aud
va Scotia, 700.
provisions relating
117.
I, 117; on the Prai-
)or acre, in Canada,
n Canada, 57.
)f overage prices of,
66.
i\v Brunswick, 618.
tago from Toronto
constructed, 112.
nswick, description
n Associations In
cposlts oi^ found in
, 674-677.
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